


7- •;', 












,% 



^^. 



* •^- G- 



o 






^^^^ ^ 



-^o^ 



."■■ ,,v 



v^ 






vK^i'~ 






























\^ 



0^., 






'^A V* 






^^ 



^' 



^ 



■—7: -',1- ^ p 






.^^ %. 



V 1 B ^ 
















p^^. 



o 



^^' .^^' 






v 









^^-^^^ 



■".^^ 









h^ -^^ 



-5 . ^^ CJ>^ 



\ ^ 



•^ 






-<>^ 



-# 
"^ 



'- ''^A V^ 



S " ' \ <^ ■* >i K 









\0 ^^ '^ 






■^ a 



, * O M ^ .^^ 



Q 






.^^ 






* .0 H ^ \^^ 

V> ^ ^ ^ A > 

V- <P "Si 






' " * ^ a\ .. V 






0^^. 



C' y 



v^^' % 







;--■ ^ ^ 






%">'■ 



'O. 






> 






\ 



V I B 






,0o 



^./. *- .0 H ^ A^^ 



II ^ < 






.<^ 



.v^ 



.^ "k 



N' </^ 



A>' 



c 






I ■ ^ 

r 



//;->■' 



^°^. 












'/> 






\' 









■f' 



'P. 






->. 



'^^^ ' 



.-N 



.N^' 






0^ 









, -/- "^ N • vV 



^^. 












^^^ v-^^ 

x^^^, 






/ 



" <> V 



0^" 



* . 



') s 






•^«. 






cP' 



-"■^ 






^.<V^' J^:^^ 






-co'* 



A^ 



.^\ 



x\^ 






.,/><2^_ -^ 






\ 



^O. 









-^^ 






^f <■ 



vN: 






\^' .... '=^. * » 1 ^ "^ ^ C^' 



^ ^y^^'^^r ^ 



^^' .<^ 









- '^ 



aV 



» 1 \ s.~ 






E\}t laural Science Scries 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 



THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS 



^>^^<^ 




A. MILLARDET, 
Professor in the Academy of Sciences, Bordeaux, France. 

{See, page 26.) 



x- 



THE 



SPRAYING OF PLANTS 



A SUCCINCT ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORY, PRINCIPLES 
AND PRACTICE OF THE APPLICATION OF 
LIQUIDS AND POWDERS TO PLANTS 
FOR THE PURPOSE OF DE- 
STROYING INSECTS 
AND FUNGI 



> . B.^^' 



E.-^ Gf LODEMAN 

Instructor in Horticulture in the Cornell University 



WITH A PREFACE BY 

B. T. GALLOWAY 

Chief of the Division of Vegetable Patuology, United States 
Departmemt of Agriculture 




/ 

• JAN 29 1896 



1 Jfill O-i^ \ C 

MACMILLAN AND CO. 



AND LONDON 

1896 

All rights reserved 



Co 



^ 



oP 



V 



Copyright, 1896, 
By MACMILLAN AND CO. 



^** Thesis presented to the Cornell University for the Degree 
OF Master of Science. 



Nortoooli ^ress 

J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 
Norwood Masa. U.S.A. 



SEINER MUTTER 

IN INNIGSTER LIEBE ZUGEEIGNET 

DER VERFASSER 



PREFACE. 

In looking back over the past'ten or twelve years, it is dif- 
ficult to realize the rapid advance made in combating the 
insects and fungi which attack our cultivated plants. It is not 
going too far to say that the discoveries made within this 
period have worked almost a revolution in certain lines of 
agriculture. So phenomenal has been the progress in this 
direction that we are sometimes led to think that we have gone 
forward too fast, for in our intense desire to make the work 
thoroughly practical we have in many cases merely skimmed 
the surface, overlooking some of the most important funda- 
mental questions involved. However this may be, the fact 
remains that America to-day stands well to the front in the 
discovery and application of practical methods of dealing with 
the numerous insect and fungous enemies of cultivated plants. 
The. advance in this department has been so rapid that it has 
hardly been possible for investigators to keep track of all that 
has been written on the subject, nor has it, under the circum- 
stances, been an easy matter to pause and consider what is to 
be the final outcome of work of this kind. This seems to be a 
fitting time, therefore, to take a broad survey of the subject in 
order that we may see where we stand. Mr. Lodeman has 
done this in the present volume, in which is given a clear, con- 
cise statement of the existing condition of our knowledge on 

ix 



X Preface. 

the spraying of plants and the fundamental principles under- 
lying this operation. 

As to the future, it can only be said that the prospect for 
broadening the work so well begun is exceedingly promising. 
As yet it cannot be stated that we have a well-defined science 
of plant pathology, but gradually the investigations and thought 
in this direction are being crystallized. It is now realized that 
to truly understand and appreciate pathological phenomena we 
must be familiar with physiology, the normal life processes of 
plants. After all, the highest aim of the investigator in this 
field of research is not to deal only with effects as he finds 
them, but to study causes, as it is only by this means that 
the true nature of many of the phenomena involved can be 
obtained. Following this line, we shall in the future look for 
a science capable of elucidating the problems which form the 
very basis of agricultural and horticultural pursuits. 

B. T. GALLOWAY. 
Washington, D.C. 



CONTENTS. 
Part T. 

THE HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES OF SPRAYING. 

CHAPTER I. 

Early History of Liquid Applications. 

First Applications to Plants — Present Distribution of Insect and 
Fungous Parasites — Oceans as Barriers — Protective Applica- 
tions the Most Effective Measures — Spraying Defined — Early 
Recommendations — Vinegar — Rue — Urine — Dung — De- 
struction of Plant Lice — Tobacco, Water, Pow^der — Soap — 
Soot — Sage — Hyssop — Wormwood — Lime — Petroleum 

— Turpentine — Tansy — Leek — Hellebore — Oils — Sul- 
phur — Paints — Washes — Forsyth's Composition — Ashes — 
Sand — Plaster — Burnt Bones — Decoction of Walnut Leaves 

— Train-oil — Whale-oil — Flax Rubbish — Sea-weed — Sea- 
shells — Sea-sand — Mortar Rubbish — Clay — Tanner's Bark — 
Leather Scraps — Salt — Corrosive Sublimate — Alcohol — 
Potato Water — Decoctions of Elder — Bitter Herbs — Pepper 

— Lye — Pot and Pearl Ashes — Tar — Hot Water — Soft Soap 

— Farmyard Drainage — Brimstone — Burdock Leaves — 
White Hellebore — Nitre — Whale-oil Soap — Nux Vomica — 
Scotch Snuff — Cayenne Pepper — Aconite — Pigeon Dung — 
Eau Grison — Quassia Chips — Copper Sulphate — Various 
Formulas containing these Ingredients — Applications recom- 
mended against Canker — Cantharides — Plant Lice — Me- 
chanical Injuries — Canker-worms — Red Spider — Insects on 

xi 



xii Contents. 

Melons — Scale Insects — Apple-tree Borer — Slugs — Cater- 
pillars — Bed-bugs — Brown Turtle Insect — White Scaly Coc- 
cus — Pine-bug — Peach Mildew — Woolly Aphis — Aphis — 
Thrips — Wood-lice — Insects on Fruit Trees — Currant Worm 

— Rose-bug — Mildew on Chrysanthemum, Grape, Gooseberry 

— Curculio — Rose Mildew. 

Pages 1-18 

CHAPTER II. 

Spraying in Foreign Countries, 
in france. 

Discursive Trials of Fungicides (page 19). — Acetate of Potassium 

— Sulphur — Downy Mildew of the Grape in France — Powdery 
Mildew of Grape — Powders — Iron Sulphate — Plaster — 
Fungivore — Pear Diseases — Sulphuric Acid — Copper Sul- 
phate — Spores affected by Copper Sulphate — Treatment of 
Grape Anthracnose — Copper Sulphate upon Posts, Tying 
Materials, and Stocks — Phenic Acid Emulsion. 

Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture (page 24). — An Accidental Dis- 
covery — Early Experiments in its Use — Downy Mildew first 
systematically treated with Bordeaux Mixture — Other Mate- 
rials tested — First Published Formula for the Bordeaux Mix- 
ture — Tomatoes sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture for Rot — 
Recommendations for Treating Potatoes — Treatment of Beaune 

— Treatment of Millardet — Spraying with Simple Solution of 
Copper Sulphate — Spraying with Milk of Lime — Treatments 
with Powders. 

Origin of the Ammoniated Copper Fungicides and Various Com- 
binations (page 30). — The Use of Eau Celeste — A Dilute 
Bordeaux Mixture — Bouillies Bourguignonnes. 

Poivders (page 32). — Podechard's — David's — Sulphosteatite — 
Sulfatine. 

Perfection of Fungicides (page 34). — Stock Solutions for the 
Bordeaux Mixture — Treatment of A. Bouchard — Modified Eau 
Celeste — Bouillie Berrichonne — Treatments for Anthracnose of 
Grapes — Tests of Fungicides — Grape Black Rot in France — 
Bordeaux Mixture containing some Dissolved Copper — Bor- 



Contents. xiii 

deaux INIixture Celeste — Bordeaux Mixture and Molasses — 
Tests of Fungicides — Bordeaux Mixture, Various Formulas 
and Combinations — Treatments for Fear Diseases. 
Insecticides (page 50). — Soap — Alcohol — Aloes — Oxalic Acid — 
Fichet\s Insecticide — Fetroleuni — Kerosene Emulsion — Sul- 
phide of Potassium — Benzine — Glue — Salicylic Acid — Red 
Oxide of Mercury — Carbonate of Soda — Carbon Bisulphide — 
Fyrethrum. 

IN ITALY (page 53). 

Early Applications — Adoption of French Practices. 

IX OTHER CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES (page 53). 

Treatments for Oidium Tucker i — Introduction of the Grape Downy 
Mildew — Adoption of French Practices — Present Methods. 

IN ENGLAND (page 54). 

Slow Adoption of the French Methods — Potassium Sulphide — 
Introduction of Copper Sulphate — French Journals quoted — 
Insecticides. 

IN AUSTRALASIA (page 57). 

Experiments with Fungicides — Introduction of French and Ameri- 
can Practices — Tasmanian Spraying Laws. 

Pages 19-58 

CHAPTER III. 
Spraying in America. 

IN THE united STATES. 

Spraying for Leaf-eating Insects and the Codlin-moth (page 59). 
— Appearance of the Potato Bug — First use of Paris Green — 
First use of Paris Green for the Canker-worm — First use of 
Paris Green for the Codlin-moth — First use of London Purple 
— Introduction from England — Paris Green and London Pur- 
ple compared. 

Spraying for the Cnrculio (page 68) — The Arsenites and the 
Curculio — Discussion of the Value of Spraying for Curculio — 
New York Practices — Ohio Practices. 



xiv Contents. 

Other Arsenites (page 74). — Paris Purple — p]nglish Purple 
Poison — White Arsenic — Wliite Arsenic and Lime. 

Caustic and Non-poisonous Insecticides (page 77). — Alkalies — 
Quassia — Pyretlirum — Kerosene — Kerosene Emulsions — 
Cook's Hard-soap Emulsion — Cook's Soft-soap Emulsion — 
Hubbard-Riley Emulsion — Ilesin Soaps — Resin Washes and 
Compounds. 

History of the Fungicides (page 87). — First Materials tested — 
Hyposulphite of Soda — Sulphide of Lime — Sulphur — Meas- 
ures adopted against Grape Diseases before the Use of Copper 
Compounds — Publication of the French Discoveries and Recom- 
mendations. 

The Warfare against the Various Fungous Diseases (page 92). 

— First Formulas for the Copper Sulphate Solution, Milk of 
Lime, Copper Mixture of Gironde, Podechard's Powder, Kero- 
sene Emulsions — Early Treatments of Grapes with Copper 
Fungicides — Tests of Fungicides — Spraying in 1887, Formulas 
recommended and the Plants treated — Spraying in 1888 — 
Spraying in 1889 — General Treatment of Fruit and Nursery 
Stock — Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides — Lime 
and Arsenites — Spraying Greenhouse Plants — Spraying during 
1890 — Improvements in Fungicides — Treatments for Potatoes 

— Spraying during 1891 — Dilution of the Bordeaux Mixture — 
Tests of the Most Promising Fungicides — Spraying since 1891 

— Control of Black Knot. 

IN CANADA (page 112). 

First Adoption of Methods recommended in the United States — 

Spraying in Ontario — History of Spraying in Nova Scotia — 

Canadian Publications. 

Pages 59-114 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Materials and Formulas used in Spraying. 

An Alphabetical List of the Most Important Materials used in 
Spraying, with Directions for their Preparation and Use. 

Pages 115-180 



Contents. xv 

CHAPTER V. 
Spraying Dkvices and Machinery. 

I. HISTORY OF SYRINGES AND PUMPS (page 181). 

Heath Brooms — Watering-cans — Syringes — Fountain Pumps — 
Garden Engines — Knapsack Tanks — French Knapsack Pumps 

— American Knapsack Pumps — Introduction of Barrel Pumps 

— Types of Barrel Pumps — Introduction of Power Sprayers — 
Spraying with Steam — Spraying with Gas Power — Device for 
Mixing Kerosene and Water, 

II. EVOLUTION OF NOZZLES (pagC 197). 

Three Principles the Basis of all Spray Nozzles — The Groups of 
Nozzles — History of Each Group — Value of the Nozzles of 
Each Group. 

III. BELLOWS AND POWDER GUNS (pagC 204). 

Hand Bellows — Power Bellows. 

IV. COMPARISON OF LIQUIDS AND POWDERS (page 205). 

Advantages of Powders — Defects of Powders — Value of Liquids. 

V. MERITS OF THE VARIOUS SPRAYING DEVICES (page 207). 

Materials used for Making Spraying Machinery — Knapsack 
Pumps — Hand Syringes — Bucket Pumps — Barrel Pumps — 
Cylinders — Pistons — Handles — Air Chambers — Agitators — 
Base-castings — Types of Barrel Pumps — Horizontal-acting 
Pumps — Spraying Rigs and Outfits — Orchard Spraying — 
Power Machines — Spray Nozzles for Different Purposes — 
Character of Sprays. 

Pages 181-224 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Action of Insecticides and Fungicides. 

The Certainty of their Action — The Time to Spray — The Manner 
to Spray — Insecticide defined — Fungicide defined. 



xvi Contents. 

I. UPON INSECTS (page 227). 

Insecticides destroying by Contact — Insecticides destroying when 
Eaten — Theoretical Treatment of Insect Enemies — Transfor- 
mations of Insects. 

II. upox FUNGI (page 228). 

Some Characters of Fungi — Saprophytic Fungi — Parasitic Fungi 

— Tlieoretical Treatment of Fungous Diseases. 

III. UPON THE HOST-PLANT (page 231). 

Not Poisoning the Fruit — Healtlifulness of Sprayed Apples and 
Grapes — Amounts of Copper u^aon Sprayed Grapes — Effect of 
Arsenic upon Foliage — Pasturing Stock in Sprayed Orchards 

— Analysis of Grass in Sprayed Orchards — Copper Compounds 
upon Foliage — Upon the Roots of Plants. 

IV. UPON THE SOIL (page 235). 

Analyses of Soils treated with Copper Compounds and the 
Arsenites — Condition of the Arsenites in the Soil — Action of 
Copper Solutions upon Soils and Plants. 

V. UPON THE VALUE OF THE CROP (page 237). 

Necessity of Applications upon Certain Crops — Keeping Qualities 
of Sprayed Fruits — The Benefits derived from Spraying. 

Pages 225-238 

Part II. 

SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR SPRAYING 
CULTIVATED PLANTS. 

Description and Treatment of the Most Important Insect 
AND Fungous Diseases affecting Cultivated Plants. 

Almond — Apple — Apricot — Asparagus — Aster — Balm of 
Gilead — Barley — Bean — Bean, Lima — Beet — Blackberry 

— Cabbage — Carnation — Catalpa — Cauliflower — Celery — 



Contents. xvii 

Cherry — Clnysantliciimin — Corn — Cotton — Cottonwood — 
Cranberry — Cucumber — Currant — Dahlia — Eggplant — 
Elm — Gooseberry — Grape — Greenhouse Pests — Hollyhock 

— Maple — Mignonette — Mosses and Lichens — Muskmelon — 
Oats — Onion — Orange — Pansy — Parsley — Parsnip — Pea 

— Peach — Pear — Plum — Potato — Privet — Pumpkin — 
Quince — Radish — Raspberry — Rose — Shade Trees, Shrubs 

— Spinach — Squash — Strawberry — Sweet Potato — Sycamore 

— Tobacco — Tomato — Turnip — Verbena — Violet — Water- 
melon — Weigelia — Wheat — Willow. 

Pages L39-374 

APPENDIX. 

A. Laws regarding the Spraying of Plants (page 375). 

In California — In Canada — In Massachusetts — In Michigan — 
In Oregon — In Utah. 

B. Metric System (page 382). 

Pages 375-383 

INDEX (page 384). 



THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. 



-»o><^c 



Part I. 

THE HISTORY AJ\'I) PBIJVCIPLES OF 
SPRAYING. 



CHAPTEK I. 

EARLY HISTORY OF LIQUID APPLICATIONS. 

]\Ian's power over the organisms which injure cultivated 
plants was never so great as it is at the present time. One by 
one these enemies have been carefully studied, the history of 
their lives determined, and their habits observed. Only by 
understanding them thoroughly can proper steps be taken to 
check their ravages in the most economical and efficient man- 
ner ; yet it is within comparatively recent years that this first 
step was taken to obtain the mastery over them. Formerly, 
when a pest injured a plant, it was no uncommon practice to 
apply any remedies or materials that came to hand, regardless 
of their probable efficiency. It was not generally the weakest 
point of the organism that was assailed. In many cases it was 
not even the proper organism which was held responsible for 
the injury. Nevertheless many valuable discoveries came from 
these varied and desultory treatments, and some of the remedies 
most highly prized to-day were discovered merely by chance, 
not very many years ago. 

Present knowledge and methods of investigation, largely 
founded upon this experience, enable us to arrive at conclu- 

B 1 



2 The Spraying of Plants. 

sions which, from the outset, are founded upon a sound and 
logical basis. It is fortunate that this is the case. The number 
of the enemies of cultivated plants is either now more numerous 
than formerly, or the attacks are much more energetic. It is 
undoubtedly true that the maladies of cultivated plants are 
much more widespread. This fact is mostly due to the greater 
food supply, and to the greater ease with which most of the 
injurious forms can pass from one part of the country to an- 
other, because the cultivated areas lie so close together. If a 
plant is grown to any considerable extent, it is easy for its ene- 
mies to spread over the entire region in which it is cultivated. 
Physical barriers are almost without value in checking this 
spreading of disease. The ocean is only a partial exception, 
since such close means of communication have been established 
between all parts of the globe that this obstacle is now of little 
avail. Some diseases have not yet been able to overpass it, but 
as it has proved of little hindrance in so many cases, it is probable 
that ultimately the enemies and diseases of plants will be as 
widespread as are the plants upon which they flourish. Weedy 
plants, insects, and possibly also fungi, are frequently more 
destructive in a new country than in their old home. They are 
freed from the enemies or conditions which formerly kept them 
in check, and in some cases they are the cause of very serious dis- 
turbance, although originally they may not have been markedly 
destructive. 

Farmers and fruit growers cannot fence out the many forms 
of insects and fungi which live upon their crops and which are 
as anxious for a harvest as the grower is. It is a fight between 
the grower and the pest, and it must be admitted that the latter 
has generally had the best of the battle. The farmer has not 
been properly equipped. He has often had invisible foes to 
contend with, — foes which he did not understand, and which 
he could not assail. It frequently occurred that an entire crop 
was ruined in a day or two, and the cause remained unseen and 
unknown ; and even if it was visible, almost the only remedy 
upon which the grower could rely with certainty was mere 
force, first catching the pest and then destroying it. As this 
could be done with profit only in rare cases, it was little better 
than no remedy, and the general result was that the insect or 
the fungus obtained an ample supply of nourishment, and the 



Early History of Licpiid Applications. 3 

grower took ■what was left. Indeed, this method is still fol- 
lowed by many cultivators, but it is not the safest, nor is it the 
most profitable one. 

The best is generally the most profitable commodity, and the 
poorest is the least so ; and the grower of to-day has it in his 
power to produce the best. It rests entirely with him whether 
his apples shall be wormy or not, whether his trees shall retain 
their foliage or lose it from disease. There are few evils that 
affect his crops which he cannot control, in many cases almost 
absolutely. Only a few diseases remain which still refuse to 
submit to treatment, but the number is rapidly decreasing, and 
the time will come when these also will disclose some vulnerable 
point Avhich will allow of their destruction. 

Foremost among the operations by means of which cultivated 
plants are protected from their enemies, is spraying. This con- 
sists in throwing upon plants any fluids, or semi-fluids, in the 
form of a fine rain or mist. It rests upon the general principle 
of covering the plants, or the parts of plants to be protected, with 
a thin but uniform layer of some material that is poisonous, 
caustic, or offensive to the organism which it is desired to de- 
stroy. The word " spraying," as understood in this connection, 
has not been in general use more than ten or fifteen years, for 
the operation previous to this time was practiced only to a very 
limited extent. It was then referred to as " syringing," from 
the fact that hand syringes were generally used as a means of 
making the applications. This term is still in common use 
among florists and gardeners, whose daily duty it is to throw 
water upon their plants either for the purpose of promoting 
growth, or in order to keep them free from foreign matter, 
such as insects or dust. It is essentially a term which, in this 
country, is used in connection with plants grown wholly or 
partially in a greenhouse or in some similar structure. Spray- 
ing, on the other hand, is a term now used by farmers and 
fruit-growers to designate a similar operation, but the plants 
treated are grown entirely out of doors, and pure water is 
rarely used. The operation of both syringing and spraying is, 
however, the same ; namely, the throwing of liquids, more or 
less finely divided, upon plants or other objects. 

It is impossible to tell when plants were first syringed. It 
is very probable that the value of the operation was understood 



4 The Spraying of Plants. 

as soon as the cultivation of plants began to attract serious 
attention. The immediate causes which led to the practice 
were undoubtedly the same as those now existing. Foliage 
almost invariably looks brighter and fresher when wet, and one 
instinctively feels that if the appearance of a plant is improved 
by a certain operation, the general health of the plant is 
improved to an equal degree. The removal of insects or any 
injurious substances would have a similar effect, and all good 
gardeners would feel a temptation to improve their plants in this 
simple way. 

Insects and diseases have unquestionably troubled cultivators 
from the time plants were first grown. Remedies would natu- 
rally be sought, and it appears that these older gardeners were 
controlled by the same feeling which even to-day often mani- 
fests itself in connection with the taking of medicine : the 
worse the drug smells or tastes, the more good it is supposed to 
do. Early in the seventeenth century Parkinson advised the use 
of vinegar to prevent canker on trees, and the recommendation 
was supposed to rest upon a very firm foundation.^ One old 
record ^ giving instructions for making liquid applications of an 
insecticide reads as follows : " Cantharides (Ccmtarides) are 
flies which attach themselves to the branches near the upper parts 
of trees, especially on the ash. They may be destroyed by 
pouring or throwing on the tops of the trees, by means of a 
small pump, water in which has been boiled some rue." Ruta 
graveolens is probably meant. This herb has a strong, heavy, 
and very disagreeable odor, and a sharp, bitter taste. If such 
qualities make a plant a good insecticide, rue should be one of 
our most valuable remedies. It seems very probable that the 
idea of selecting materials which are offensive to the senses was 
uppermost in the minds of those who first had occasion to use 
them, for most of the earlier substances recommended are of 



^ John Parkinson, " Paradisus," The Ordering of the Orchard, Chap. viii. 550. 
1629 : " The canker is a shrewd disease when it happeneth to a tree ; for it will 
eate the barke i-ound, and so kill the very heart in a httle space. It must be 
looked into in time before it hath runne too farre ; most men doe wholly cut away 
as much as is fretted Avith the canker, and then dresse it, or wet it with vinegar or 
cowes pisse, or cowes dung and urine, &c. untill it be destroyed, and after healed 
againe with your salve before appointed." 

2 "La Theorie du Jardinage," 166, 1711. See also Deane, "The Newengland 
Farmer," IT 7-1 84. 



Early History of Liquid Applications. 5 

tliis character. A great variety of materials must have been 
tested again and again by various persons independently of each 
other. Those materials which possessed real or imaginary reme- 
dial values, or which from their very nature appeared to possess 
them, remained in use until something that promised better 
could be found. Thus it came that at the close of the eigh- 
teenth century, and early in the nineteenth, the number of 
things recommended against various diseases was large, and 
some of the compounds possessed considerable insecticidal 
value. The following examples may here be cited : 

" In the year 1763, there appeared in the papers of Marseilles 
a remedy for plant-lice. The applications should be made by 
means of a small tin syringe having a nose pierced by about 
one thousand holes. The instrument is filled with water in 
which lime has been slaked, previously mixing with the clear 
liquid some bad tobacco, finely powdered ; this should be used 
at the rate of a handful to two liters of the liquid. The trees 
are syringed with the mixture, and although the foliage remains 
uninjured the pests are destroyed. But after four or five days 
the trees should be again syringed, using clear water." ^ 

" But many of the plant-lice may be destroyed by passing the 
leaves upon which they are found between two sponges wet 
with tobacco water. Ground tobacco powder spread upon the 
insects will kill them instantly. One may also use with it the 
v/ater of slaked lime or of strong soap, soot, sage, hyssop, worm- 
wood, and other bitter or strong-smelling herbs. Soot, lime, 
and soap have the disadvantage of staining the leaves, fruits, 
and the plants to which they are applied. Tobacco and worm- 
wood leave small particles upon the portions treated. Otlier 
materials are often without value. Tansy, hellebore, rue, leek, 
bitter gourd, and long pepper have the disadvantages men- 
tioned above. Petroleum, turpentine, and other oils are also 
recommended ; but care must be taken in their use, since they 
also act upon the plants, making them sick or even killing 
them." 2 

" First wet the trees infested with lice, then rub flowers of 
sulphur upon the insects and it will cause them all to burst." ^ 

^ J. A. E. Goeze, " Gescliichte einiger scbadlichen Insecten." Leipzig, 1787, 
ItJG. 

2 JOiiL 164. s /f,i,f_ 16S. 



6 The Spraying of Plants. 

Forsyth in 179 l,i gave directions for the preparation of a com- 
pound which became generally known as "Forsyth's Composi- 
tion." The ingredients were apparently standard remedies at 
this time, and they persisted long after his composition went 
out of use. It was made as follows : 

"Take one bushel fresh cow dung, one-half bushel lime rub- 
bish from old buildings, one-half bushel wood ashes, one-six- 
teenth bushel pit or river sand. The last three are to be sifted 
fine before they are mixed. Then work them well together with 
a spade, and afterward with a wooden beater until the stuff is 
very smooth, like fine plaster used for the ceilings of rooms." 

Soap-suds or urine was used to make the composition of the 
consistency of plaster or paint. 

After being applied it was covered with a sifting of powder 
made of " dry powder of wood ashes, mixed with the sixth part 
of the same quantity of the ashes of burnt bones." 

This composition w^as recommended to cure disease, defects, 
and injuries of plants. It was held to be particularly valuable 
in promoting the healing of wounds, and w^as commonly used to 
fill cavities in trees. 

Early in the history of the treatment of plant diseases, j)aints 
and washes were in general use. They were applied by means 
of brushes, or the plants were actually washed with a rag or 
sponge, so that they were very thoroughly cleaned. This practice 
is by no means out of date, for it is still one of the regular duties 
in good greenhouse management to wash many of the plants in 
order to keep the foliage clean and healthy. Soap or some 
similar substance is still generally added to the water, as was 
formerly done. This alkali could always be readily obtained, 
and as it possesses decided merit as a destroyer of certain in- 
sects, it was at a very early day regarded as a valuable remedy. 

We have another interesting note in the following extract 
in which the destruction of the canker-worm is desired : ^ 

" There are several experiments I could wash to have tried, 
for subduing these insects : Such as burning brimstone under 
the trees in a calm time ; — or piling dry ashes, or dry, loose 

1 Oath regarding the correctness of the directions was made at the Land Revenue 
Office, in Scotland Yard, the eleventh day of Maj^, 1791. 

2 Samuel Deane, D.D. (vice-president of Bowdoin College), "The Newengland 
Farmer, or Georgical Dictionary," second edition, 1797. 



Early Histoi^y of Liquid Ajjplications. 1 

sand round the roots of trees in the spring ; — or tlirowing 
powdered quicklime, or soot, over the trees when they are wet; 
— or sprinkling them, about the beginning of June, with sea 
water, or water in which wormwood, or walnut leaves, have 
been boiled; — or with an infusion of elder, from which I 
should entertain some hope of success. The liquid may be 
safely applied to all the parts of a tree by a large wooden syr- 
inge, or squirt. 

" I should suppose that the best time for making trial of these 
methods would be soon after the worms are hatched : for at 
that stage of their existence they are tender, and the more 
easily killed. Sometimes a frost happening at this season has 
destroyed them. This I am told was the case in some places 
in the year 1794." 

Forsyth ^ recommended the following mixture for the de- 
struction of aphis : 

Unslaked lime I peck. 

Water 32 gallons. 

Allow this to stand three or four days, stirring two or three 
times per day. It was applied by means of a syringe. He 
recommended ^ the same mixture for the destruction of acarus, 
or red spider, but said that pure water would also answer the 
purpose. For plants in hothouses the use of pure water alone 
was advised. Against insects on melons, however, he said ^ that 
the plants should first be washed with water, and then again 
washed with a mixture of urine and soap-suds, using a rag. 
It is also stated^ that several English nurserymen used train- 
[whale-] oil against coccus, or scale insects on ^^lants. It was 
applied with a brush, but the author claims that it was not an 
efficient remedy. Nevertheless it was extensively used in some 
parts of England. 

During the early years of this century a great many sub- 
stances were recommended both in this country and in Europe 
for the destruction of the enemies of cultivated plants. 
Mention 5 is made of the following articles which were to 

1 William Forsyth, " A Treatise on Culture and Management of Fruit Trees," 
American edition edited by William Cobbett, 1802, 173. 

2 Ibid. 174. " 3 jfjia. 176. * Ibid. 179. 
6 J. Thacher, M.D.. "American Orchardist," 1822, 104. 



8 The Spraying of Plants. 

be used against the apj)le-tree borer, an insect that is desig- 
nated as a " pernicious reptile " by the author. After digging 
out the borer, fill the cavity about the base of the tree with 
" flax rubbish, sea-weed, ashes, lime, sea-shells, sea-sand, mortar 
rubbish, clay, tanner's bark, leather scraps, etc." I can find 
no record of careful experiments having been made with these 
articles, and it is not improbable that some of them were 
recommended without actual trial, as is sometimes done even 
to this day, simply on the ground that the remedy "ought" 
to be of value. It is also stated,^ quoting from the " Massachu- 
setts Agricultural Reports," that Josiah Knapp, of Boston, in 
1814, used air-slaked lime with success against the canker-worm. 
He applied it thickly about the base of the tree. Later experi- 
ments have shown that this is of little benefit in checking the 
ravages of the insect. The use of air-slaked lime is said ^ to 
have been successful in the destruction of slugs found on the foli- 
age of fruit trees, and this is still one of the best remedies we 
possess. Tar water also proved to have the power of instantly 
killing the slugs with which it came in contact. It was pre- 
pared by pouring water on tar and allowing it to stand for 
two or three days. This gave a strong infusion and was said 
to be very effective. 

Several remedies against caterpillars are also mentioned.^ 
" It is asserted " that spirits of turpentine, or common fish-oil, 
has the power of penetrating through the web made by these 
insects and they are killed when the liquid comes in contact 
with their bodies. Mr. Yates, of Albany, N.Y., made a mix- 
ture which w^ell illustrates the variety of materials used during 
this period : 

Wormwood 1 handful. 

Rue 1 

Virginia tobacco 2 liandfuls. 

Water 2 pailfuls. 

Boil the herbs in the water for half an hour, strain the 
liquid, and it is then ready to be applied. Yates also said that 
if sufficient tobacco is used alone, it will answer the same pur- 
pose as the above, but not so well. 

1 J. Thacher, M.D., " American Orcbardist," 1822, 92. 

2 Ibid. 107. 3 Ibid. 96. 



Early History of Liquid Applications. 9 

Reference is also made ^ to some experiments of E. Perley to 
combat scale insects on trees. He found, after trying many sub- 
stances, that the most effectual way of removing scale insects 
from trees was to wash them with lye, or brine. Lime could be 
used with the lye to advantage. The brine was made by using 

Commou salt 1 quart. 

Water 2 gallons. 

This could be applied as soon as the salt was entirely dissolved. 

Thacher^ regarded train-oil as a very powerful insecticide 
against lice, but discouraged its use on account of its glutinous 
character, it being on this account harmful to trees. 

Clay paint was perhaps one of the first remedies to be ap- 
plied to plants. Several factors would encourage its use ; among 
others may be mentioned the ease of its preparation, its cheap- 
ness, and its adhesive properties. When j^roperly used it forms 
a thin, dense coating over the parts to which it is applied, and 
it has the appearance of granting almost perfect protection to 
the part covered. The Caledonian Horticultural Society, of 
Scotland, recommended ^ its use, and, in fact, its application has 
been very generally advised. It has also formed the basis of many 
mixtures and only with the appearance of the remedies now in 
common use has it fallen from favor. Only the purest clay 
obtainable w^as selected, and it was generally strained so that 
the coarser particles might be removed. 

A solution which appears to have been in common use for 
the destruction of bed-bugs was also said* to be valuable as a 
remedy for canker. " Canker " is an indefinite term which w^as 
employed to denote almost any disease of the stems or trunks 
of plants, W'hose origin was not understood ; the injury may 
have been caused by insects or by fungi, or any of several other 
causes. Whenever death and decay overtook any part of the 
stem, it was generally termed canker. The solution which 
would cure or check the disease was made by taking 

Corrosive sublimate 1 drachm. 

Spirits (alcohol) 1 gill. 

Soft water 4 quarts. 

1 J. Thacher, M.D., "American Orchardist," 1822, 109. 

2 Ibid. loS. 3 jiici. second edition, 1S25, 79. 
4 "The Practical American Gardener," Baltimore, 1822, 170. 



10 The Spraying of Plants. 

The corrosive sublimate was first dissolved in the spirits, 
and then this solution was added to the water. It was said to 
kill the eggs as well as the insects with which it came in con- 
tact; and although long in use it still stands as one of the 
most valuable agents for the destruction of some insects which 
are not closely connected with horticultural products. It also 
possesses 1 the power of destroying the "brown turtle [scale] 
insect, white scaly coccus, pine bug [mealy-bug?], and red 
spider." A decoction of tobacco was pronounced to be excel- 
lent for the removal of aphis, thrips, and wood-lice. 

Although fungous diseases are rarely mentioned in these early 
writings, their suppression was nevertheless attempted. John 
Robertson, in a paper read Nov. 20, 1821, before the London 
Horticultural Society,^ said sulphur was the only specific remedy 
that could be named for the treatment of mildew on peaches. 
It should be mixed with soap-suds and then be applied by dash- 
ing it violently against the trees by means of a rose syringe. It 
was necessary to sprinkle all parts of the tree with the mixture 
to be certain of success. Sulphur is to-day one of our standard 
remedies against such mildews, and it seems that no other sub- 
stance will soon supersede it. 

William Cobbett mentions ^ some instructions for the treat- 
ment of the cotton blight (woolly aphis) which, if well carried 
out, would certainly dislodge the pest. He directs that where 
these insects are found, to wash " the place well with some- 
thing strong, such as tobacco juice. The potato, which some 
people look upon as so nutritious, very nearly poisons the 
water in which it is boiled ; and an Irish gentleman once told 
me that that water would cure the cotton blight. Rubbing 
the part with mercurial ointment will certainly do it." 

The idea that '^ something strong " was necessary to dislodge 
the enemy was still, apparently, the leading thought, and 
nearly everything that could be said to possess this desired 
quality was probably given a chance to prove its merits at one 
time or another. Thomas Fessenden gives ^ an interesting list 
of a few of the materials which were supposed to possess the 

1 "The Practical American Gardener," Baltimore, 1822, 397. 

2 Tvans. London Ilort. Soc, Vols. i.-v. 1824, 1T8. 

8 Cobbett, "The English Gardener," 1829, first English edition, 289. 
* Fessenden, "New American Gardener," sixth edition, 1832, 1G9. 



Earhj History of Liquid Applications. 11 

strength necessary to overcome the organism against which 
they were applied. He writes as follows : 

" Insects may be annoyed, and oftentimes their complete 
destruction effected, by sprinkling over them, by means of 
a syringe, watering-pot, or garden engine, simple water, soap- 
suds, tobacco water, decoctions of elder, — especially the dwarf 
kind, — of walnut leaves, bitter and acrid herbs, pepper, lye of 
wood ashes, or solutions of pot and pearl ashes, water impreg- 
nated with salt, tar, turpentine, etc. ; or they may be dusted 
with sulphur, quicklime, and other acrid substances." An- 
other article, one mentioned by Lindley,i is vinegar, and he 
says that it is of considerable value for destroying insects. 

AVith such a battery of powerful materials directed against 
them, it is a wonder that so many insects we now have to con- 
tend with should still exist. The very number of the materials 
named is an indication of weakness ; for if any of them had 
really possessed very decided merit, there would have been no 
necessity for the existence of the rest. Some of them are really 
valuable, and are in use at the present time, yet it is true that 
we are still on the lookout for something which is superior to 
the remedies now at hand. 

The value of hot w^ater as an insecticide has long been 
known. Fessenden quotes- Loudon as saying: "Saline sub- 
stances mixed with water are injurious to most insects with 
tender skins, as worms and slugs; and hot water, when it can 
be applied without injuring vegetation, is equally, if not more 
powerfully, injurious. Water heated to 120 or 130 degrees 
will not injure plants whose leaves are expanded and in some 
degree hardened ; and water at 200 degrees or upwards may be 
poured over leafless plants." In a later work,^ Loudon says : 
"Mr. Swainson advises for the destruction of the aphis 'the 
application of warm water, sufficiently hot to destroy aphis 
without injuring the trees : more will be thus destroyed than 
either by repeated application of the syringe or by the use of 
tobacco water. . . . Two or three applications of warm water 
will destroy nearly all the insects.' " The remedy was also 
frequently mentioned in horticultural journals. 

* Lindley, " Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden," 1S31, 509. 
2 Fessenden, "New American Gardener," sixth edition, 1S32, 169. 
' " Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, T95. 



12 The Spraying of Plants. 

Dr. William Kenrick i speaks of aloes and cayenne pepper, 
among other materials, as being effective in the treatment of 
aphis, but their use never became very general. He also gives ^ 
a formula for the destruction of a white, mealy insect : 

Quicklime h. peck. 

Flowers of sulphur h. pound. 

Lampblack \ " 

Mix all in as much boiling water as will make a thick paste, 
and apply warm. The lime and the sulphur are probably the 
most active portions of the mixture. Although lampblack is 
here mixed with them, these two substances, when used to- 
gether in water, already formed one of the most important and 
valuable remedies in use against the various mildews which 
attack plants. The same writer gives ^ the following formula, 
in which sulphur and quicklime are recommended for checking 
mildew on grapes : 

Sulphur \ pint. 

Quicklime piece size of the fist. 

Water (boiling) 2 gallons. 

When cool, dilute with cold water, and allow the solid mate- 
rial to settle. Then draw off the clear liquid, and pour it into 
a barrel. The barrel is then filled with water, and the mixture 
is ready for use. A modification of this formula eventually 
came to be a standard preparation for the treatment of mil- 
dews ; but during this period the substances were used in 
varying proportions, and generally other ingredients were 
mixed with them. 

John Mearns made a composition, which was suggested to 
him by Thomas Andrew Knight, at that time president of the 
London Horticultural Society.^ In a paper read in 1835, he 
gave directions for making this preparation : 

Strongest farmyard drainage 1 gallon. 

Soft soap 1 pound. 

Flowers of brimstone " 

1 William Kenrick, " The New Americau Orchardist," 1833. lutroduction, 
xxxiii, 

2 Ibid, xxxvi. 3 IMd. 328. 

* Trans. London Hort. Soc. second series, 1842, Vol. il. 39. 



Early Hhtory of Liquid Applications. 13 

Tliese ingredients were well mixed together and were stirred 
three or four times a day. This was done for several days, and 
then some finely sifted quicklime was added, until the whole 
assumed the consistency of paint. Mearns said the farmyard 
drainage might be replaced by tobacco juice, and the lime by soot. 
This mixture was recommended for the destruction of insects. 

The use of pungent and acrid herbs long continued to be 
recommended for the same purpose. T. Bridgeman, among 
other remedies, speaks ^ of burdock leaves as being effective in 
preventing injury from the attacks of the "turnip and cabbage 
fly." He recommends preparing hogsheads full of the infusions 
of this and other herbs, and then sprinkling the plants with 
the liquor. For the annoyance or desti'uction of insects on fruit 
trees he advises the use of decoctions made of walnut leaves, as 
well as those of tobacco and elder; the use of pepper, soot, 
sulphur, and similar substances are also mentioned as having 
value, their action being j^erhaps more particularly the annoy- 
ance of the pest than its destruction. 

White hellebore was also commonly recommended as early 
as 1842, although it did not prove of value in the hands of 
all growers. It was used particularly to destroy worms on 
gooseberry plants, and was applied in the form of a powder or 
in pure water, or when mixed with soap-suds.'^ It does not 
appear to have been used to any considerable extent in America 
until after the introduction of this gooseberry saw-fly, or as 
it is here known, the imported currant worm, which occurred 
sometime before 1858, at which time its presence was first 
noticed. Joseph Harris is said to have been the first to recom- 
mend the use of hellebore in America,^ after he had been using 
it successfully for four years. P. Barry used it mixed with 
water, and applied the liquid to his plants by means of a 
syringe, one-half pound being used in a pail of water. 

A rather unusual solution was used by J. Murray ^ against 
mildew on peach trees. He applied 

Sulphur 2 pounds. 

Alcohol 1 quart. 

^ Bridgeman, "The Young Gardener's Assistant," seventh edition, 1837, 11, 

2 Gardeners'' Chronicle, 1842, June 18, 397. 

3 Country Gentleman, 1865, June 29, 413. 

* Gardeners' Chronicle, 1841, Aug. 21, 550 



14 The Spraying of Plants. 

The trees were thoroughly painted with this when the buds 
were swelling. He asserts that he used the mixture for twenty 
years, so it must have been very effective in his hands. Nitre 
was also applied for mildew on roses.^ It was prepared by using 

Nitre 1 ounce. 

Water 1 gallon. 

In December, 1844, its use on chrysanthemums for mildew 
was also mentioned. 

On June 13, 1810, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society 
offered a premium for the most cheap and effective mode of 
destroying the rose-bug. David Haggerston, of Watertown, 
Mass., was awarded a premium of $120 on March 5, 1842, after 
his remedy had been thoroughly tested by a committee. The 
material which he employed was whale-oil soap, used at the 
rate of 

Whale-oil soap 2 pounds. 

Water 15 gallons. 

He said the strength of the soap varied and this would re- 
quire a change in the above foi'mula in certain cases. He con- 
tended that this is an effectual remedy for other troublesome 
insects ; as the thrips or vine fretter, the aphis or plant-louse, 
the black fly that infests the young shoots of the cherry, the 
red spider, and other insects. He also asserted that it would 
destroy mildew on peaches, grapes, and gooseberries, if weak 
solutions were used. Whale-oil soap is to-day so well known 
and so generally used against insect enemies that it is scarcely 
necessary to say that many of the statements of Haggerston are 
just. 2 

Loudon has recorded ^ several interesting recipes that show 
how complex were many of the mixtures recommended. Some 
of them contained so many ingredients that it would seem as 
if any evil that plants are heir to would be reached by at least 
one of them. Nicol's recipe was thought to be particularly 

1 Gardeners' Chronicle, 1844, Jan. 27, 53. 

2 "Hist, of the Mass. Hort. Soc," 1829-1878, 256. Country Gentleman, 1842, 
134. 

3 "Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, 785. 



Early History of Liquid Applications. 15 

valuable for the destruction of coccus, or scale insects ; it was 
made as follows : 

Soft soap 1 jDound. 

Flowers of sulphur 1 " 

Tobacco ^ " 

Nux vomica 1 ounce. 

Soft water 4 gallons. 

These materials were well mixed with the water and then 
boiled until the amount of liquor was reduced to three gallons. 
It was then allowed to cool, and was ready for use. Plants 
which were not in active growth, and whose foliage was not too 
tender, were dipped into the mixture. For overhead syringing, 
the liquid was diluted one-third with water. 

Hamilton's recipe is also given : ^ 

Sulphur 8 ounces. 

Scotch snuff 8 " 

Hellebore powder 6 " 

Nux vomica 6 " 

Soft soap 6 '• 

Cayenne pepper 1 ounce. 

Tobacco liquor 1 quart. 

Water (boiling) 1 gallon. 

Stir and render as fine as possible, and then strain through a 
rough cloth. Hamilton did not appear to feel very confident of 
the action of even this array of death-dealing matter, so he 
advised in addition that the plants be washed with it, and the 
insects removed while washing. When so used it w^ould doubt- 
less act as a specific. The recipe is also interesting from the 
fact that it contains hellebore as one of the ingredients ; for 
at that time the use of this poison was probably somewhat 
limited. The insecticidal value of decoctions made of the wood 
of quassia was also known to a limited extent; but the material 
has been more widely recommended than used. 

Hemery, a French nurseryman, made a compound ^ which he 
said would destroy mildew on peaches if only one application 
were made. It contained some materials which unquestionably 

1 " Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening," 1878, 785, quoted fi-om Speechly, 
"Treatise on the Pine," 1779, 60. 

2 Revue Horticole, 1849, Sept. 15, 360. 



16 The Spraying of Plants. 

possessed " strength," but whether best adapted for the purpose 
designed may be open to doubt : 

(«) Aconite branches and tubercles 1 kilogram. 

Water 4 liters. 

(&) Pigeon dung 25 " 

Urine 1 hectoliter. 

Mixture (&) was allow^ed to ferment forty-eight liours, and 
infusion (o) was added only just before the mixture was used. 
The applications should be made in April. 

The most important and probably the most effective form in 
which sulphur was used w^as the solution known as the ^' Grison 
liquid " {eau Grison). It was also called the poly- or the hydro- 
sulphur of Grison ; it is still in use, although not so commonly 
as heretofore. Grison was head gardener of the vegetable 
houses {serves du potager^ at Versailles, France, and in 1851 
he first made the solution. He used ^ 

Flowers of sulphur 500 grams. 

Freshly slaked lime 500 " 

Water 3 liters. 

Boil the above for ten minutes, allow the mixture to settle, 
and then draw off the clear liquid. Keep this in bottles and 
before using add one luindred parts of w^ater to one part of the 
liquid. Apply wdth a syringe. This solution is excellent for 
all surface mildews, and three applications are sufficient to ]3i'o- 
tect foliage. Later the quantity of sulphur and of lime was 
reduced one-half and it is one of the few early fungicidal prepa- 
rations still in use. An Englishman claims ^ to have used a 
similar preparation as early as 1845, using one part of sulphur, 
one part of lime, and one hundred parts of water. Grison, 
however, appears to have been entirely independent in the 
manufacture of his preparation, and it soon became much 
better known than the other. 

Lime wash was recommended in America against curculio of 
plums in 1850. Lawrence Young, of Louisville, Ky., seems to 
have been one of the first to try this remedy, and it was ap- 
parently successful. 3 " It consists simply of covering the young 

1 Revue Horticole, 1852, May 1, 168. 

2 Tuck, Gard. Chron. 1852, July 27, 419. 3 Country Gentleman, 1850, 333. 



Early History of Liquid Applications. 17 

fruit, as soon as danger is apprehended, with a coating of thin 
lime wash, considerably more dilute than the mixture em- 
ployed in white-washing." 

The use of quassia chips was adopted in America soon after 
hellebore became known. In 1855 the material was recom- 
mended as a remedy for aphis, being prepared by boiling 

Quassia chips 1 pound. 

Water 8 gallons. 

The liquid was boiled until the decoction had been reduced 
to six gallons.^ 

An interesting article by W. F. Kadclyffe appeared in one 
of the English journals ^ in 1861. The writer, knowing the 
value of copper sulphate when used upon smutty seed-wheat, 
reasoned that the rose mildew, being also a fungous trouble, 
should likewise yield to treatment by this chemical. He there- 
fore applied a solution of two ounces of blue vitriol dissolved in 
a " stable bucket " of water to live plants by means of a fine 
spout, and entirely freed his plants from the disease. The 
statement was also made that weaker solutions would be tried 
the following year. A few weeks later a note appeared in the 
same journal which warned growers against the use of the sul- 
phate of copper, as it would kill roses if it came in contact with 
their roots. No further mention of the remedy was made, and 
even the following year brought no account of any experiments 
made by Radclyffe. What millions might have been saved 
had this important work been carried only a little further I 
But the old remedies continued to be used until about 1870 ; 
insects and fungi were treated practically the same in Euroj)e 
and in America, and changes of only minor importance were 
made. 

The Americans projfited very largely from the experience of 
European gardeners, but a few new methods of treatment also 
arose in this country. It could not be otherwise, for different 
enemies had to be dealt with, and these required different treat- 
ments. But these variations were comparatively slight, and 
the remedies used in the first half of the century were more or 
less common as late as 1880. Sulphur in some form was every- 

1 Michigan Farmer. Cited in Country Gentleman, 1S55, April 12, 235. 

2 Gard. Chroii. 1861, Nov. 2, 067. 

C 



18 The Spraying of Plants. 

where the standard remedy for mildews, and when this failed, 
growers were at a loss to apply anything more efficient. The 
best insecticides were the various forms of soap, tobacco, quassia 
chips, carbolic acid, and hellebore, although the last was a com- 
paratively new remedy. Kerosene was also used in America to 
a limited extent. With these materials gardeners and fruit 
growers managed, as a rule, to produce good crops. 

But a change was to come. In America it was brought about 
by insects ; these became so abundant and began to do so much 
damage in districts that before had not suffered seriously, that 
new remedial measures wei'e demanded. A new insect, the 
potato beetle, was introduced from the far West, and this threat- 
ened to be even more destructive than those which were in- 
digenous to the East. 

In Europe the revolution was brought about by fungi, but 
not by the European types. They came from America, and 
have shown, in southern Europe particularly, the same push 
and energy which is everywhere recognized as characteristic of 
the American. And so it came that while the growers in 
France were combatting fungi, those in America were contend- 
ing against insects, and a great difference soon arose in the 
methods of treatment adopted. It was a veritable revolution ; 
for old remedies were obliged to give way to new ones, and 
established methods to those but little tried. Indeed, the 
change marks an epoch in the history of the cultivation of 
plants. 



CHAPTEE II. 

SPBAYIXG IX FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

I. Ix Fkaxce. 

Discursive Trials of Fungicides. 

Xo important changes took jDlace in tlie materials used by 
the French for the destruction of fungi and insects until about 
the year 1882. The use of chemicals in place of the substances 
which appeal strongly to the senses had increased, for an occa- 
sional mention is made regarding the more or less successful 
trial of some ucav material of this character. Gironard^ says 
that in 1862 the idea occurred to him to use from two to four 
grams of acetate of potassium in one liter of water for the pre- 
vention of mildew on grapes. The results were very marked, 
and in 1863 the vines were productive directly in proportion 
to the amounts of the chemical applied. But this sul)stance 
did not come into general use, and it was not until the value of 
the compounds of copper became known that any permanent 
advances were made. 

Soon after the appearance in France of the downy mildew 
{Peronospora viticold) the necessity for a more energetic fungi- 
cide than sulphur became evident. Sulphur as then nsed seemed 
to be entirely without effect in checking the progress of this 
disease. The mildew was first discovered in France in 1878. ^ 
Millardet saw it in September of that year upon some American 
grape seedlings growing in the nursery of the Societe d'Agricul- 
ture de la Gironde, and Plachon at the same time recognized it 

^Bulletin de Ja SocUte d' Horticulture d'Eiire-et-Lolr, ISGS, No. 13, January, 
2T0. 

^Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1S81, Feb. 10,192. 

19 



20 The ^^f raying of Plants, 

on the leaves of Jacqiiez grapes at Coiitras and also received it 
from various departments of Lot-et-Garonne, and of Rhone. 
The disease spread rapidly and was so destructive that in 1882 
the fruit in many vineyards was almost entirely destroyed. The 
climate of France appears to be peculiarly adapted to the 
growth of this mildew, which flourishes as well upon the varie- 
ties of Vitis vinifera as upon our American species. In moist 
seasons it is fully as energetic as in America, or even more so. 
The leaves fall from the vines, and the grapes are thus prevented 
from ripening properly. Even in cases in which the vines do 
not lose all their foliage, a partial reduction is sufficient to de- 
crease the amount of sugar in the grapes to such an extent that 
their value for wine is very greatly lessened. Many growers 
did not at first realize the seriousness of this disease. In some 
vineyards it even obtained a firm foothold without being noticed, 
for the portions of the fungus which are on the exterior of the 
leaves are borne on the under side. When, however, it became 
established in a certain district, all doubts regarding its serious- 
ness vanished, and the vineyardists found themselves confronted 
by a disease which not only threatened to destroy their vines, 
but which gave unmistakable proof of its power to do so. 

The remedies in general use for controlling the European 
surface mildew (Oidluni Tucker i) proved to be of little value 
against this new foe. Spraying with milk of lime was recom- 
mended and very thoroughly tried, but it did not give such 
good results in France as were reported from Italy. The milk 
of lime was used with good results against the oidium of the 
grape by Professor Keller even before 1852.1 In 1881 Professor 
Garovaglio, director of the cryptogamic laljoratory at Pavie, 
used it with fairly good success against the peronospora, but his 
statement of this work, although apparently of the greatest im- 
portance, received no attention from Italian vineyardists. It 
w^as not until 1883, when the work of the agricultural school at 
Conegliano, Italy, became known, that the remedy was generally 
adopted. Many growers in northern Italy, especially the Bel- 
lussi Brothers, near Conegliano, were particularly successful, 
and so much confidence was placed in their method of control- 
ling the mildew that the minister of agriculture, in a circular 
published in 1885 recommended its general adoption. During 

1 Cerlettie Cuboni, Annali di AgricoUura, 1886, 20. 



Spraying in ForeAf/n Countries. 21 

this same year Cerletti published ^ an important article in which 
he annomiced that the peronospora could be effectually com- 
bated by the use of the milk of lime. The mixture was made 
by slaking 3 kilos of quicklime in 100 liters of water, first con- 
verting the lime into a fine powder, by partially slaking it, and 
then adding the remainder of the water.^ 

Powders were very extensively tried in France. Their use was 
undoubtedl}^ suggested by the fact that sulphur had been applied 
in the form of a powder for a great many years. There was at 
this time no apparatus particularly adapted to the ajDplication 
of liquids, but such was not the case with powders. As early as 
1881 3 Professor Millardet, of the Faculty of Sciences of Bor- 
deaux, used the sulphate of iron in powdered form in connec- 
tion with sulphur and also with plaster. He reported to Mme. 
Ponsot (who suggested this practice, and with whom he carried 
on the work) that 4 kilos * of sulphate of iron mixed with 
20 kilos of plaster had stopped the mildew. 

J. Laure,^ an engineer at Apt (Vaucluse), had for several 
years made a study of a certain ore of sulphur, called " Soufres 
des Tapets." This mineral contained various substances besides 
sulphur, and after having been treated so that it contained more 
or less of the sulphate of iron it was sold under the name of 
" Fungivore." It was highly recommended against attacks of 
anthracnose, and was also very effective in checking the oidium 
of the vine. From three to six applications were necessary to 
protect the plant well. It was used to a considerable extent, 
but this powder, as well as the many others which were sold, did 
not equal the liquid applications in efticiency. (See page 32 for 
a more complete discussion of the powders which came into use 
as fungicides.) 

Other fungous diseases than those of the grape were now 
attracting attention. Paul Oliver said^ that for several years 
pears had suffered from the attacks of a fungus which pro- 

^ liirista di YiUcoUura, 1885, Aug-. 30. 

2 Pinolini, " Le Crittogame," 1888, 30 ei seq. 

3 Jour. (VAg. Prat. 1883, April 19, .%3. 

* One kilog:ram is equal to 2.2 pounds. Since the metric system is the one 
used by the large majority of the experimenters of continental Europe, the system 
will be retained in this portion of the work. For a complete scheme of the weights 
and measures of the metric system, as well as their equivalents, see Appendix. 

6 Jour. (VAg. Prat. 1883, April 19, 554. « /^jf^. 1881, July 7, 20. 



22 The Spraying of Plants. 

duced black, velvety spots upon the foliage, and in 1880 it also 
deformed the fruit to a considerable extent. The cause of 
the injury was attributed by Prillieux,^ the inspector-general 
of Agricultural Education, to Fusicladium pi/rinum ( Cladosporium 
dendrlticum, Walr.), and a description of the fungus was pub- 
lished. Paul Oliver ^ made some experiments which were de- 
signed to throw light upon the best method of destroying the 
spores of the parasite. The materials used were, (1) pure water ; 
(2) water acidulated with one-twentieth its amount of sulphuric 
acid ; (3) a o3| per cent solution of the sulphate of iron ; (tt) a 
16| per cent solution of the sulphate of copper. He advised the 
use of the last in rainy weather, but during dry weather either 
the second or the third would prove effective. Oliver further 
states that he succeeded in killing the spores of F. pyrinum with 
an 8 per cent solution ^ of copper sulphate, and that he sprayed 
his trees with a 10 per cent solution during the winter of 1882-3. 

This discovery — that the salts of copper would prevent the 
germination of the spores of fungi — was by no means new. As 
early as 1807, Benedict Prevost gave ^ an account of the metliod 
by which he prevented the germination of the spores of a fun- 
gous disease commonly known as " Cavie," or " Charbon " 
(smut), of corn. His statement regarding the result of his 
experiments is as follows : " The amount of sulphate of copper 
really necessary to give to water the power of preventing the 
germination of the spores in a low temperature does not 
amount to 400V00 ^f its weight, and jo-0^000 retards germina- 
tion." Thus a discovery of immense practical importance has 
long remained hidden and unappreciated, and it is not impos- 
sible that other information equally valuable is at present 
neglected in a similar manner. 

The first general statement in regard to the value of chemi- 
cal compounds for the destruction of grape mildew seems to 
have been made by Millardet.^ He says : " Recent observa- 

1 Comptes Rendus de VAcademie des Sciences, 187T, Nov, 12. 

2 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1881, July 7, 20. 

3 By an 8 per cent solution is meant a solution which contains S jjarts by 
weight of the solid dissolved in 100 parts of the liquid. 

* " Memoire sur la cause immediate de la Carie on Charbon des blcs." Montau- 
ban, 1807. 

^ Zeitschrift in Wein-, Obst-, uiid Oarteiibau fur Eha^z-Lothringen, 1883, 
March 1 and 15. 



/i 



Introduction of Copper Salts. 23 

tions make me hope that perhaps the most satisfactory results 
may be obtained by the use of certain mineral solutions, such as, 
for example, the sulphate of iron or of copper." But no definite 
experiment had been made up to this date to prove his assertion. 

Prillieux ^ carried on experiments at Nerac for the destruc- 
tion of the American grape mildew. He found lime to be of 
little value. Borate of soda, used at the rate of five grams ^ 
dissolved in a liter ^ of water, gave good results, but the various 
toxics and antiseptics used by.him were practically useless. 

A concentrated solution of the sulphate of iron for the de- 
struction of anthracnose was already regarded as a specific,* 
for it had long been used with success in the treatment of 
the disease. The practice appears to have originated with 
Schnorf, of Kossbach-JNIeilen, Germany, for he writes as follows 
regarding its early history : ^ " During twenty years, I have 
successfully used the sulphate of iron for anthracnose of the 
grape, in accordance with the following plan : During spring, 
before the vines start, I dissolve 3 kilos of sulphate of iron 
in 6 liters of boiling water. When the solution has cooled, 
I pour it into earthen vessels. The workmen take these into 
the vine^^ard and wash the vines with rags, vv'hich are dipped 
into the liquid. This is done but once during the year, in 
early spring, and the results are uniformly excellent. It has 
occurred that during certain seasons before the treatments 
were begun, I lost the entire crop if the weather was cold and 
moist, while I have rarely failed to obtain a good yield since 
the applications were made, and I feel well repaid for my 
trouble. I repeat the washing every year, and other vine- 
yardists have followed my example with equal success." 

In France it became the common practice to cover the posts 
and vines with this solution during winter or early spring, a 
broom or brush being used for the purpose. In some cases the 
entire post was soaked in the solution for several days. 

r. de Lafitte states ^ that Sept. 20, 1881, Ivicaud and also 

1 Jour. (VAg. Prat. 1SS2, Jan. 10, 75. 

2 A gram is equal to 15.432 grains. See Appendix. 

3 A liter is equal to 1.056 quarts. 

* Jour. d'Acj. Prat. 18S3, April 19, 553. 

^ Sehweizer Jlouats-Schrlfi fi'ir Ohi<t- luul TFeiVz^^ai/, 187S, ix. 155. See also 
La Vi(//ie Americaine, 1ST1>, May, No. 5. 
6 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1SS5, Oct. 1, 471). 



24 The Spraying of Plants. 

Paulin published in the Journal de Beaune a note on the 
good effects which followed the covering of posts with a con- 
centrated solution of the sulphate of copper. The work had 
been done in Burgundy. On the 23d of September the above 
journal also contained an article on the same subject, written 
by Montoy. Ad. Perre}^ mentions ^ a case in which the posts 
that supported the vines were treated with a solution of sul- 
phate of copper, and this caused all the leaves within a circle 
20-25 cm. in diameter, the post being at the center, to remain 
upon the vine. Untreated vines lost all their foliage. Several 
other observers in various sections of France noted the same 
fact, and all agreed that the beneficial action extended to 
practically the same distance as mentioned above.^ The prac- 
tice was consequently of value only for vines not more than 
five or six years old, since larger vines carry so much foliage 
outside of the protected belt. JSTevertheless, many growers soon 
made a practice of covering the posts, vines, and also the 
tying material, with a strong solution of copper sulphate; and 
some believed excellent protection followed the treatment. But 
the method did not give uniformly good results, and some 
more effective remedy was still sought. 

In 1885 the French vineyardists were still apparently with- 
out a good remedy for the mildew. P. Pichard, director of 
the agricultural station at Vaucluse, proposed ^ a solution of 
the liver of sulphur ; and Foex, director of the school of Viti- 
culture at IMontpellier, asserted ^ that, after making an appli- 
cation of an emulsion of one part phenic acid in 100 parts 
of soap water, all traces of mildew disappeared. He found it 
advisable to add glycerine to this preparation, in order to pre- 
vent it from drying too fast. V. Cambon advised the use of 
a 2 per cent solution of bisulphate of soda. 

Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture. 

Such, in general, was the nature of the experimental work 
which was done at this time. New chemicals were tried, as well 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1884, Oct. 16, 540. See also report of Van Tiegbem to 
Academy of Sciences, 1884, Sept. 29. 

2 Bidault, Jowr. de VAg. 1S85, Oct. 31, 712. 

3 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Feb. 5, 217. 
* Ibid. loG. cit. 



Origin of the Bordeaux Mixture. 25 

IS many different combinations of old ones. Some of these 
)roved to be fairly efficient, but the ideal remedy had by no means 
3een discovered. It was not until the fall of 1885 that there ap- 
Deared unmistakable evidence, based upon experiments, that a 
substance had been found which promised to be a specific against 
he grape mildew, and perhaps also against many other fungous 
iiseases. This substance was copper. Its history is all the 
nore interesting from the fact that the first use of its most 
effective combination was not in any way connected with the 
Lungous diseases of the grape, but rather with the human 
enemies of the vineyardist. Nevertheless, when the mildew 
ippeared, this preparation rose to the occasion, and protected 
:he foliage, as well as it had done the fruit of the vines. 

In southwestern France, in the maritime department of 
Glironde, is situated the city of Bordeaux. It lies near the west- 
ern border of a large horticultural district of which the grape 
is by far the most important fruit. These grapes are mostly 
manufactured into wine, and it is particularly the clarets which 
nave made this district knowai throughout the world. It is 
liere that the downy mildew of America first made its appear- 
ince in Europe, probably in 1878, and here also it first became 
most serious. The summer of 1882 was particularly favorable 
:o its development; and as no steps had been taken to check 
its progress, the injury done to vineyards w^as very great. The 
[oliage of the vines was destroyed, and tell to the ground during 
:he summer. This prevented the proper ripening of the grapes, 
xnd the harvest was almost without value. 

A few vines, however, escape this general attack. These 
were situated along the highways, particularly about Margaux, 
3t. Julian, and Pauillac, in the Medoc. It was noticed by many 
that in the fall of 1882 certain vines retained their foliage in an 
?ilmost perfect condition. Vineyardists in these localities had 
liuffered considerable losses from the stealing of their grapes 
by children and travelers along the highways. It had for- 
merly been the custom ^ to sprinkle verdigris upon a few rows 
3f the vines nearest to the road for the purpose of giving the 
fruit the appearance of having been poisoned. Several years 
before the appearance of the downy mildew this substance was 

iMillardet, Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Oct. S, 514. Prillieiix, "Report to the 
Minister of Agriculture," Oct. 22, 1885. 



26 The S])raying of Plants, 

replaced, from reasons of economy, by a mixture of the milk 
of lime and some salt of copper, the sulphate being commonly 
used, on account of its cheapness. This mixture Avas of the 
consistency of cream, and was of a light blue color. It was 
applied to the vines by means of brooms, or whisks of heath. 
The design was to appl}^ enough of tlie mixture to each vine 
to give it the appearance of having been well poisoned, the 
operation, of course, being delayed until the period of ripening 
approached. 

The vines thus treated were the ones which had retained 
their foliage through the fall of 1882, while others growing 
further from the road lost their leaves. The cause of the 
beneficial action of the mixture was soon ascribed to the 
copper, for lime used alone had proved unsatisfactory as a 
remedy for mildew. Prillieux and Millardet were among the 
first to note the effect of the mixture and to ascribe its action 
to the proper cause ; bnt Millardet is the one who did the most 
towards perfecting the mixture and testing its action upon 
foliage, and upon the mildew. (See frontispiece.) He was 
materially assisted by U. Gayon, professor of chemistry in the 
Faculty of Sciences, of Bordeaux. These two may justly be 
considered the leaders in the study and use of the preparation 
which was destined to prove superior to all fungicides that 
have been used to the present day, and which is now so well 
known, in a modified form, under the name of the Bordeaux 
mixture . 

Although these men were the most energetic in conducting 
the work, and the first to publish results, they apparently were 
not the only ones working in this field. Prillieux asserted^ 
that the treatments of Jouet and of E. Ferrand were made 
simultaneously with those of Millardet, and independently of the 
latter, and that they did not even know of IMillardet's investiga- 
tions. Their work, however, does not appear to have been 
carried on systematically, nor were results published which go 
to show that the experiments began so early as did those of 
Millardet and Gayon. It is consequently to these two men that 
the honor of having first experimented wdth the "bouillie 
bordelaise," as it then began to be called, may be granted, and 
to Millardet in particular may be given the credit of being the 

1 Societe Kaiionale cVAg7-iculture de France, session of Nov. 4, 1885, 590. 



I 



I 



Trials of Cojyper Compounds. 27 

first to plan and publish results \vliicli showed plainly the value 
3f the copper compounds in commercial work.^ 

The first systematic applications of copper compounds for the 
prevention of the downy mildew^ were made- on the ISth of 
August, 1883, or the year following the observation of the ap- 
parent value of lime and copper sulphate when applied together. 
The work was done on the grounds of the castle of Dauzac in 
the Medoc, by E. David, steward of the place, but under the 
direction of Millardet. In these experiments the sulphates of 
iron and of copper were used. They were applied in pure 
solutions, and also mixed with lime in varying proportions. 

In 1883 Millardet, believing that copper was the most effi- 
3ient agent in the destruction of the mildew, applied this metal 
in other forms than the sulphate. He used,^ in addition, the 
carbonate, phosphate, and sulphide of copper, and also the 
[corresponding salts of iron. Lime was also applied alone. In 
1881 the same work was repeated, and although the mildew was 
not very abundant, still he and j\Ir. David came to the conclu- 
>;ion that the mixture of the sulphate of copper and the milk of 
lime was the most promising of all the materials applied. They 
rlecided to give up the use of the iron salts, as well as the sim- 
ple solution of copper sulphate. It was found that the latter 
burned the leaves when used stronger than one-half part of the 
=<alt in 100 parts of water. This result, however, does not agree 
with those obtained by Messrs. Ad. Perrey, P. de Laiitte, and 
Maginen. On the estate of Salle de Pez, at St. Estephe, an 
8 per cent solution of copper sulphate proved ^ to be nearly as 
efficient as when lime w as added. 

During these two years the mildew was not very prevalent in 
the treated vineyards, so that only partially satisfactory results 
were obtained. These were, however, of sufficient value to 
warrant the publication ^ of an article by Millardet, in which 
were given the following directions for preparing and applying 
the mixture : 

" In 100 liters of water dissolve 8 kilos of commercial 

* Jom\ cVAg. et cVIFort. de la Gironde, Oct. 1. Cited in Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 
1885, Dec. 3, 804. 

2 Jout\ d'Ag. Prat. 1885, Dec. 3, 804. 

3 Ibid. 708. 

* Ibid. Nov. 5, 661, 662. 

6 Annates de la Societe d'Ag. de la Gironde, 1885, April 1, 73 et seq. 



28 The Spraying of Plants. 

sulphate of copper. In another vessel malce a milk of lime by 
slaking 15 kilos of quicklime in 30 liters of water. This is 
then added to the copper sulphate solution, causing a bluish 
precipitate. The workman should stir the mixture well, and 
then pour a part of it into a pail or w^atering pot. This is 
carried in the left hand while with the right he sprinkles the 
foliage by means of a small broom. Care should be taken 
that none of the mixture shall strike the grapes." Such was 
the first formula for making the Bordeaux mixture ; and the 
first apparatus used for its application was a broom ! 

On Dec. 3, 1884, some time previous to this publication, 
Baron Chatry de la Fosse had called the attention of the Agri- 
cultural Society of Gironde to the good effects following the 
use of the mixture of lime and copper sulphate, but he gave no 
direction for its preparation nor for its use. 

During 1885 the downy mildew developed with much inten- 
sity. Many experiments were tried, and the year brought out a 
number of facts regarding the various treatments. The value 
of the " bouillie bordelaise " was proved beyond all doubt. 
Wherever it had been properly used, the results were all 
that could be wished. Untreated vines lost their leaves, and 
those to which the mixture had been applied, retained them 
in an almost perfect condition. These results are all the more 
remarkable on account of the very crude method of applying 
the mixture, a small broom being generally used for the pur- 
pose. The most marked and promising results of the year 
were probably obtained by de Ferrand, Johnston, and David.^ 

The original formula of the mixture was modified by various 
vineyardists in 1885. De Ferrand used '^ successfully about 
the same quantity of lime as of copper sulphate. David added ^ 
glue to the mixture at the rate of 6 kilos strong glue dissolved 
in 800 liters of the mixture. This first trial of the addition of 
glue was apparently followed by beneficial results. 

The first application of the Bordeaux mixture for the pre- 
vention of other diseases than those of the vine seems also to 
have been made this year. Prillieux, in his report to the 
minister of agriculture, dated Oct. 22, 1885, says ^ that Jouet, 
at Chateau-Langoa (Medoc), made an application to tomatoes 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1885, 699 et seq. s Ibid. 661. 

2/6ic?. 701. ^Ibid.^m. 



The Fungicides of 1885. 29 

which were apparently attacked by the same peronospora that 
is found upon potatoes. He believed he had cured or stopped 
the disease. Since this fungus is closely related to the peronos- 
pora of the vine, it seemed very probable that the remedy would 
prove equally valuable for all similar diseases. Prillieux even 
went so far as to advise, for the first time, the use of the mix- 
ture upon potatoes and tomatoes, and events have shown that 
his advice was well worthy of being follow^ed. 

At the beginning of the year 1885 the general opinion ap- 
pears to have been to wait until the appearance of the mildew 
uj^on the vines before making an application ; and it was also 
believed that one treatment was sufficient. But after the work 
of the year Millardet thought ^ that in case of severe rains it 
might be advisable to make a second. 

At the close of the year Prosper de Lafitte summed '^ up the 
methods then in use for checking the dowaiy mildew of the 
grape, as follows : 

1. " The treatment of Beaune, which consists in covering the 
posts and the tying material, rye straw being commonly used 
for this purpose, with a five-tenths per cent solution of cojDper 
sulphate. (Page 24.) 

2. " The treatment of which Millardet is the promotor " con- 
sists in protecting the vines by means of a mixture of the milk 
of lime and a solution of copper sulphate. (Page 27.) 

3. " Spraying the foliage with a simple solution of copper 
sulphate. (Page 27.) 

4. " Spraying the foliage with the milk of lime, using approx- 
imately a 2 per cent mixture." (Page 20.) 

To the above might have been added also : 

5. The treatment which consists in the application of pow- 
ders, (Page 32.) 

The use of the " bouillie bordelaise " became more general in 
1886 and many cases are reported in which its beneficial and 
almost specific action w^as proved. The general opinion seemed 
to be that it was superior to any of the other substances recom- 
mended. 

In accordance with the advice given by Prillieux in the fall 
of 1885 Jouet, in the Medoc, made what apj^ears to have been 
the first application of the mixture to potatoes for the preven- 

1 Jour. (VAg. Prat. 1SS5, T34. 2 /^jV7. 880 et seq. 



30 The Spraying of Plants. 

tion of the rot, a disease which was then very destructive. The 
experiment is reported ^ by Prillieux, w^ho says that the area 
treated covered about three hectares.- The application was 
made as soon as the rot appeared, and no further injury resulted 
from the disease. Jouet was equally successful with the blight 
of tomatoes, both diseases being attributed to Phytophthora in- 
festans, DeBary. Another tomato grower, at Ecully, is likewise 
reported to have been successful. 

Origin of the Ammoniated Copper Fungicides, and 
Various Combinations. 

A new fungicide, one destined to become very well known, 
was tried in 1885 for the first time. It was proposed ^ by 
Professor Audoynaud of the agricultural school at ]\Iontpellier. 
He gave the following directions for its preparation : 

Copper sulphate 1 kilo. 

Ammonia 1 liter. 

Water, sufficient to spray 1 hectare. 

The copper salt was dissolved in the ammonia and then this 
solution was added to the water. Such a solution had already 
been known to pharmacists under the name of "eau celeste," 
meaning " heavenly water," so called on account of its deep 
blue color. It was used during the year by several experi- 
menters. 

In 1886 a great many men conducted experiments to test the 
value of the compounds of copper, very few other substances 
being used. Among the many who did valuable work during 
the year may be luxmed JNIillardet and David,"* (iaillot, and 
Dr. G. Patrigeon.^ These experimenters planned the work so 
thoroughly that their results embodied the most important of 
those obtained by other workers. 

In almost every instance the " bouillie bordelaise," or Bor- 
deaux mixture, gave the most satisfactory results. Millardet 

1 Societe Nat. d'Ag. de France, session of Aug. 18, 18S6, 4(55. 

2 A hectare is 2.47 acres. 

8 Progres Agricole et Vitieole, 1886, March 28. Cited by Viala et Ferrouillat, 
" Traitment des Maladies de la Vigne," 1888, 30. 

* Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1886, Nov. 25, 764; Dec. 9, 831. 
6 lUd. Nov. 11, 696. 



\ 



1 



Liquid Fungicides of 1886. 31 

Eound that the mixture could also be made with aii'-slaked 
lime, but it then had the disadvantage of being more difficult 
to apply. He came to the conclusion that the addition of glue 
^'as of no particular value. Eau celeste proved to be a very 
idhesive solution, and it also showed very efficient fungicidal 
properties ; but it burned the foliage considerably and on that 
xccount was open to objection. Simple solutions of the sul- 
phate of copper, of varying strength, were applied, but although 
tlie weakest contained only one-half per cent of the salt, the 
foliage was in every case burned. 

L. Gaillot, of Beaune (Cote d'Or), had difficulty in obtaining 
ipparatus for throwing the Bordeaux mixture when made 
iccording to the original formula, and so searched for some 
simpler preparation. i It was at that time a common belief in 
Burgundy that the first treatments need not be strong, for even 
creating the posts was of benefit. After many trials, Gaillot 
kvas led, in 1886, to make use of formulas which called for only 
Due or two kilos of copper sulphate, and only one kilo of lime, 
jliese being applied in one hectoliter of water. 

Gaillot appears also to have been the first to make a success- 
:ul preparation of sulphur and the Bordeaux mixtui-e.^ He 
ised the following formula : 

Copper sulphate 1 kilo. 

Water 100 liters. 

In another vessel he placed 

Quicklime 5 kilos. 

Water o-Q liters. 

When this w'as thoroughly slaked, he added 

Flowers of sulphur 1 kilo. 

This was thoroughly mixed with the lime paste, and to the 
nixture he added small quantities of the copper sulphate solu- 
;ion, stirring well. When the number of additions caused the 
naterial to be of a semi-fluid consistency, it was i^oured into 
;he barrel containing the copper sulphate solution. The con- 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1SS8, Maj' 24, T62. See also "Com])te Itendu du Cougrfes 
le Dijon," 1886; Vigne frauQaise, ISSG, Sept. 15, 276, over initials K. J. 

2 " Couipte Kendu des Eeunions Viticoles," Dijou, 1S86, June 4 and 5, 55. 



32 The Spraying of Plants. 

tents of the barrel were well stirred before any of the mixture 
was removed. 

" Bouillies bourguignonnes " is the name which Gaillot pro- 
posed, in 1888,1 fQj. ^i^e designation of the Bordeaux mixture 
which contained only one or two kilos of copper sulphate. The 
name never came into common use, for the term "bouillie bor- 
delaise " was so well known that it could not be easily sup- 
planted, however just the cause for dropping it may have been. 
Millardet recommended a similar formula in 1887, as a modifi- 
cation of the original. 

Gaillot says that in 1886 he protected his grapes perfectly by 
the use of the mixture of sulphur and the bouillie bourgui- 
gnonne. He made the first application in April, using a mixture 
containing two kilos copper sulphate ; about eight days after 
flowering he applied the weaker mixture having only one kilo 
of the sulphate. The third treatment was made late in the sea- 
son, and the vines were injured neither by fungi nor by the 
materials. 

Poi^jders. 

During 1886 Millardet experimented extensively witli pow- 
ders. He used them upon the vines in the hope that they 
would prove as valuable as the liquids then in use. Apparatus 
for applying powders had already been manufactured and it \ 
was very desirable that an efficient preparation might be 
found. The one that appeared to be the most promising was 
the Podechard powder.^ It was made by Louis Podechard, of 
Gigny, according to the following formula : 

Quicklime 100 kilos. 

Svilphate of copper 20 " 

Flowers of suli)hur 10 " 

Wood ashes 15 " 

Water at 20° C 50 liters. 



The sulphur should be added after the other ingredients 
have been allowed to stand twenty-four hours. Then mix all 
together, dry the mass, and force it through a fine sieve. 

1 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1888, May 24, 738. 

^ Ibid. 18ST, May 5, 642. See also Bulletin dii coniite d' Agriculture de 
VArrondissement de Beaune, October, 1885,4-10; Jour. d''Ag. Prat. 1886, 
Dec. 3, 803. 



I 
I 



Poivders in 1886. 33 

This powder in a certain sense forms a link Ijotween the older 
ones in which the ingredients "ought" to be of value, and the 
later ones in which every material was known to possess a defi- 
nite composition and also a more or less definite action as a 
fungicide. 

The David powder was used for the first time in these exper- 
iments. It was named in honor of Mr, David, who rendered 
such material assistance to JNIillardet. The powder was com- 
posed of 

Quicklime ;>0 kilos. 

Copper sulphate 8 " 

As small a quantity of water as possible w^as used to slake 
the lime, and to dissolve the sulphate. The latter solution was 
added to the milk of lime when it had cooled, and then the mix- 
ture was dried in the sun. When perfectly dry it was ground 
into very fine powder which was of a blue color. 

Sulphosteatite was also used in these experiments. This sub- 
stance was often called " steatite cupiique," and to many Ameri- 
can readers it may be still more familiar under the name of 
" fostite," a term first used in 1891. This substance was pro- 
posed by Baron Chefdebien, of Perpignan. 

Millardet used a powder known as " sulfatine," made by 
Paul Esteve, of Montpellier. It was composed mainly of sul- 
phur, lime, sulphate of copper, and plaster, and was first made 
generally known in Progres Agricole et Viticole, Xov. 14, 1884. 

Sulfatine gave the best results of any of the powders as 
regards fungicidal action. Sulphosteatite proved to be the 
most adhesive, but it burned the foliage of the vines, and for 
that reason it required careful distribution. This powder had 
previously been mentioned as possessing no value against the 
oidium, and the Bordeaux mixture was spoken of in a similar 
manner, i David's powder was not so active against the mildew 
as was the Bordeaux mixture, and in addition it cost about 
four times as much. More material was required to cover a 
given area, and its use was not advised from a commercial 
standpoint. Podechard's powder proved to be practically worth- 
less, and other growers who used it came to the same conclu- 
sion. 

1 Jour. d'Ag. I'rat. 1886, Nov. 4, 663. 
D 



34 The Spraying of Plants. 

Perfection of the Fungicides, and further Experiments in 

their Use. 

Dr. Patrigeon tested the various methods of applying tlie 
copper sulphate solutions. In 1886 he treated, in different 
plots, the posts, the tying material, the plants themselves during 
the winter, and the foliage. He also added 10 per cent of 
plaster to a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate and applied 
this mixture with a broom. This last preparation possessed 
some merit, as did also the application of the pure sulphate of 
copper solution. But the Bordeaux mixture gave decidedly the 
best results. Treating the posts, etc., with the copper solution, 
in these experiments proved to be practically of no value. 

Prillieux also mentions ^ a case in which the Bordeaux mixture 
again gave the best results. Professor Fasquelle, of Jura, ap- 
plied a 1 per cent solution of copper sulphate to potatoes, and the 
foliage was plainly injured. Bordeaux mixture, containing an 
equal amount of copper, was used at the same time and no inju- 
rious effects could be perceived in consequence of the treatment. 

The difficulty of applying the Bordeaux mixture when made 
according to Millardet's formula induced several vineyardists to 
vary the proportions considerably, and the general impression 
at the close of the year 1886 seemed to be that there was no 
necessity for using so much copper or lime to obtain equally good 
results as followed the use of the original formula. This ques- 
tion is not entirely settled even at the present day, and it is very 
probable that some diseases require the use of more copper than 
others, some being successfully treated with very small amounts. 

It was early in 1887 that the idea was first advanced of using 
a stock solution for the making of Bordeaux mixture.^ A cer- 
tain amount of copper sulphate is dissolved in a given quantity 
of water, and any desired amount of the salt can be obtained 
by taking out the amount of w^ater which holds it in solution. 
The practice is now also in use, to a limited extent, for meas- 
uring the lime. 

The necessity of adding lime to the copper sulphate solution 
was not generally conceded.^ Yautier made comparative tests 

1 Jour. (VAg. Prat. ISSC), Doc. IG, SS6. 

2 Kicaud, J., Jour. cVAg. Prat. ISST, Jan. 20, 90. 

3 Vigne Americaine, 1SS6, Sept. 290 et seq. 



Copper Sulphate and Ammonia. 35 

of the Bordeaux mixture, eau celeste, and of tlie treatment of 
A. Bouchard. This L^st treatment consisted in the use of 300 
grams sulphate of copper dissolved in one hectoliter of water. His 
conculsions were that there is no particular difference between 
the three fungicides as regards efficiency, but the last is to be 
preferred on account of the ease with which applications can be 
made, and the cheapness of the treatments. These opinions 
were not generally accepted, unless it was in Burgundy, where 
Bouchard's treatment w^as considered an excellent remedy. 

The disadvantage of Audoj^naud's eau celeste was that it 
burned the foliage. On account of the ease Avith which this 
solution could be applied, many attempts w^ere made to render 
it harmless. Michel Ferret, of Tullius, said^ that the use of 
one part of ammonia to two of copper sidphate would form 
a perfectly safe solution. He said further- that the following- 
formula was adopted in Isere, where it was known under the 
name of " Bouillie dauphinoise " : 

Copper sulphate 2 kilos. 

Water 20 liters. 

Ammonia 22° 1 liter. 

Allow^ this to stand some hours and then draw off the liquid. 
This contains the sulphate of ammonia, which is supposed to be 
harmful to foliage. 

To the precipitate formed above, add 

Sulphur 2 kilos. 

Water 100 liters. 

The sulphur should first be mixed wdth the precipitate to 
form a paste, and the water is then added. Pie favored this 
mixture because the mutual action of the copper and the sul- 
phur was such that neither affected the wine manufactured 
from the grapes. Carnot advised ^ the use of five or six parts 
of the sulphate of ammonia to one part of copper sulphate 
crystals. G. de Capol said"* that it might be well to dissolve 

1 Jour d\\(j. Prat. 1SS7, March 10, 354. 

2 Ihid. June 23, 878. 

3 Soe. Nat. cVAg. 1887, March 16. Cited in Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1887, May 19, 
714. 

* Ibid. loc. cit. 



36 The Spraying of Plants. 

in ammonia the hydrates of copper deposited by the formula 
given by Ferret. This would give a solution entirely free from 
acid. 

Another of the many new remedies proposed during the year 
1887 was brought forward ^ by Emile Masson. He recommended 
the use of the carbonate of soda and the sulphate of copper, 
and used these two materials in proportions varying from one 
kilo of copper sulphate to one or two of soda carbonate, or sal- 
soda. These were used in one hectoliter ^ of water. He said 
that the fungicide did not burn foliage and that it spread evenly. 

Dr. G. Patrigeon, of Chabris (Indre), France, is probably en- 
titled to the credit of having first conceived and put into prac- 
tice the remedy proposed by Masson. He describes ^ it as the 
" treatment of mildew with the hydrocarbonate of copper." 
The substance was prepared by using 

Copper sulphate 4 kilos. 

Carbonate of soda 6 " 

Water 100 liters. 

He said it adhered to foliage fully as well as the Bordeaux 
mixture, and thought it could be used twice as strong as recom- 
mended above. 

A second preparation mentioned by Dr. Fatrigeon was made 
by dissolving with ammonia tlie precipitate formed in the pre- 
ceding mixture. The proportions of the ingredients varied a 
little as follows : 

Copper sulphate 1 kilogram. 

Carbonate of soda 1 " 

Ammonia 22° 1 liter. 

Water 100 liters. 

The first two ingredients are each dissolved in four liters of 
water in separate vessels. The soda carbonate solution is then 
carefully poured into the solution of copper sulphate, and when 
all reaction has stopped the ammonia is added. As soon as the 
precipitate is dissolved the solution may be diluted with the 

1 Jour. (VAg. Prat. ISST, June 9, 814. 

2 A hectoliter is 26.416 U. 8. gallons of 231 cu. in. ; or 22.009 Eng. Imp. gallons 
of 277.26 cu. in. 

s JoKv. (VAg. Prat. ISST, .June 23, S79. 



1 

i 



Grape Anthracnose. 37 

water. Practically this same solution is more or less used to- 
day, but it is known as the "modified eau celeste." Patrigeon 
at the time of its introduction, referred to it simply under the 
name of the hydrocarbonate of copper dissolved in annnonia. 

The "bouillie berrichonne" is a third preparation introduced 
by Patrigeon. This was made like the preceding, with the 
exception that only a portion of the copper precipitate was dis- 
solved by ammonia, instead of all of it. He desired that only 
one-third be dissolved. This portion would have an immediate 
action upon fungi, while the remaining undissolved part would 
act as a reserve supply. Later investigations have shown that 
such preparations are unnecessary for the successful treatment 
of fungous diseases. 

The anthracnose of grapes was at this time receiving consider- 
able attention. No reports of success in treating the disease 
during the growing season are reported, but all recommenda- 
tions are to the effect that applications should be made during 
the winter. The following treatments appeared to be most 
promising.^ The first formula was proposed by Michel Perret: 

1 • Copper sulphate 10 kilos. 

Iron " 10 " 

Water 100 liters. 

2. The Schnorf ^ treatment (see page 23) consisted in applying 

Iron sulphate 50 kilos. 

Water 100 liters. 

3. Ordinary Bordeaux mixture : 

Copper sulphate 8 kilos. 

Lime 15 " 

Water 130 liters. 

4. The same as 3, but 12 kilos of copper sulphate were 
used instead of 8. This gave the best results, but numbers 2 
and 3 follow closely. The first proved to be much less satis- 
factory. 

1 Jom: iVAg. Prat. 1887, May 5, 641. 

2 Mlllardet, "Nouvelles Kecherches sur le Doveloppement et le Traitement du 
Mildew et de rAnthracnose," 18ST, 50. 

3 Ilnd. loG. cit. 



38 The Spraying of Plants. 

Millardet believed that if one or two winter treatments were 
made regularly for three years, the anthracnose could be entirely 
cured; and at the present day this grape disease is well under 
control in Europe. 

jMihardet's formula for making the Bordeaux mixture in 1887 
w^as as follows : ^ 

Copper sulphate 3 kilos. 

Quicklime 1 kilo. 

AVater 100 liters. 

He also proposed several others, but this is the one which 
promised the best results both as regards its application and its 
fungicidal value. 

In a comparative trial of Bordeaux mixture and sulpho- 
steatite on potatoes and tomatoes, the pow'der gave apparently 
the best results.'^ Its value consisted in the fact that it adhered 
to the foliage better than the Bordeaux mixture, and that it 
reached the under as well as the upper side of the leaves. This 
is especially true for the tomato, and he advised the use of this 
powder upon these two plants. 

The formulas recommended for nuiking the Bordeaux mix- 
ture in 1888 all mentioned greatly reduced amounts of copper 
sulphate and lime. JNIillardet and Gayon found ^ that by reduc- 
ing the amount of lime the mixture was rendered more adher- 
ent. In their exj^eriments carried on at Dausac in 1887, a 
careful study was made of the effects produced by the use of 
different amounts of copper sulphate. The original formula 
contained 6 kilos of this salt in 1 hectoliter of the mixture. 
Millardet and David were so well convinced of the ^^alue of 
these more dilute mixtures that the former advised * the use 
of only 1 kilo in a hectoliter of water ; but if a severe attack of 
mildew was feared, the use of 2 kilos was thought to be safer. 

Eau celeste was also used in this work, but it proved to be 
inferior to the Bordeaux mixture. This was found to be true 
even to a greater extent in the case of other preparations con- 
taining ammonia. 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1SS7, May 19, 704. 

2 Ibid. Juue 9, 807. See, also, " Peronospora de la Vigne et Sulphost^atite 
cuprique," Dr. B. Nabias, 18S7, Bordeaux. 

3 lUd. 1888, May 3, 02-3. 
* Ibid. 624. 



The Black Bot of arajyes. 39 

As regards tlie miniber of treatments necessary for the best 
and most economical protection of the vine, ^Nfillardet says ^ that 
at least two must always be made, " but the earlier appearance 
of the disease, its greater intensity, and rapid spreading may 
render three or even four applications necessary." They were 
made in 1887 as follows : June 10, or some days before flower- 
ing, July 14, and August 8. This apparently was not sufficient 
to protect the vines fully. 

The conclusions reached by Dr. Patrigeon in his work of 
1887 were that the price of applications of the hydrocarbonate 
of copper dissolved in ammonia (modified eau celeste) was very 
low ; that the formulas for the preparation of the solution are 
remarkably simple and practicable ; that the material is equally 
or perhaps even more efficient than any other fungicide in use ; 
and that it is perfectly harmless to foliage. These claims for the 
merit of the solution were indeed founded upon fact, for it has 
been hard to decide, in regard to the comparative efficiency, 
between the Bordeaux mixture and the ammoniacal solution of 
the carbonate of copper, which is practically the same as the 
modified eau celeste recommended by Dr. Patrigeon. 

The American disease of grapes commonly known as black 
rot was first discovered in the vineyards of France m August, 
1885. ]Mr. Ricard, the steward of an estate situated at the 
gates of the small tow^n of Ganges at the borders of I'Herault, 
was the first to call attention to the presence of this fungus.^ 
He saw that his grapes turned brown, then black, while still 
remaining upon the vine. He sent some of these diseased 
grapes to the viticultural laboratory of I'Ecole de Montpellier, 
where Messrs. Yiala and Ravaz recognized the i)arasite. They 
went to the affected vineyard, and saw that only about thirt}' 
hectares in the plain of Ganges showed diseased grapes. In 
these vineyards the harvest was reduced about one-half. 

Immediate and energetic steps were taken to exterminate the 
fungus, but in 1886 it again appeared. The season proved to 
be dry, however, and very little damage w^as done. The area 
of distribution was nevertheless considerably extended. 

On July 25, 1887, Prillieux received diseased grapes from 
Azen, in Lot-et-Garonne, and was directed by the minister 
of agriculture to proceed to the infected district. He found 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 18S8, May 17, 694. 2 /bid. June 14, 847. 



40 The Spraying of Plants. 

that black rot existed throughout the entire valley of the 
Garonne as far as Aiguillon. In some vineyards it was so 
well established that there appeared to be no doubt that the 
disease had been present at least a year before its discovery 
in I'Herault; it was consequently impossible to determine the 
first place of infection in France. The disease was new, and 
at the first not very serious, so that its presence had been over- 
looked perhaps for more than one year. ]N^one of the copper 
compounds had been tried to check the disease, and this was 
the most encouraging feature of the situation in the fall of 
1887. The outcome showed that this fact might indeed give 
rise to a hope that this new disease could be controlled. It 
was in truth suppressed with greater despatch and with less 
trouble than the downy mildew had been, for on August 2 of 
the following year there was published ^ a letter from Prillieux 
in which he says: "When we see two rows of grapes, one en- 
tirely devastated, the other preserved by treatment, we must 
feel encouraged for the future." The following week the same 
journal published ^ another letter from Prillieux, saying : " These 
experiments demonstrate with complete certainty, as was sus- 
pected, but without having been positively established either 
in America, where the disease has ravaged vineyards for j^ears, 
nor in France, that cupric treatment can stop the invasion of 
black rot as well as of mildew, provided applications are made 
early enough, and in a proper manner. The success in the 
experimental treatments at Aiguillon in a year favorable to the 
disease, as was proved by the complete destruction of the crop 
on untreated plants, is a guarantee of success in the future. We 
can now combat the black rot as effectually as the mildew." 

No other events of much importance appear to have occurred 
in France in 1887 or 1888. The use of more dilute Bordeaux 
mixture was not followed by such uniformly good results as 
was hoped. Several vineyardists recommended a mixture which 
should contain not less than 3 kilos copper sulphate in 1 hecto- 
liter of the mixture, and it w^as thought advisable to make 
it even stronger for the first application. Many were also in 
favor of using only 2 kilos. Burning of the foliage had resulted 
from some applications, and this led to the advice of using at 
least equal parts by weight of quicklime and copper sulphate. 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1S88, Aug. 2, 151. 2 ma. Aug. 9, 195. 



Solutions of Cojyper in Fungicides. 41 

The Bordeaux mixture still i-etaiued its supremacy wherever 
it was used in comparative trials. Prillieux made one of the 
most satisfactory tests in this direction in his work on the 
black rot in I888.1 He used, in addition to the Bordeaux mix- 
ture, eau celeste, pure solutions of copper sulphate, sulphostea- 
tite, and Carrere powder. The relative value of these materials 
was in the same order as they are here mentioned. The vines 
treated witli the powders were attacked by the disease appar- 
ently as much as those which had received no treatment. The 
dates of treatment apparently had some effect on the efficiency 
Df all the materials. The first applications seem to have been 
made too late, for Frechou said- he had obtained excellent 
L'esults from the use of sulphosteatite and also of the Carrere 
powder. Lasserre controlled ^ the black rot well by applying 
Duly 1 kilo copper sulphate and 1| liters ammonia in 1 hecto- 
liter of water. His first treatments were made April 28, and 
tie ascribes his success to the timely beginning of the work. 
Be believed that the success of Prillieux might have been 
3ven more complete if his applications had been made earlier 
in the season. 

During 1889 a new problem was occupying the minds of the 
ieading French experimenters. It was the general belief that 
the Bordeaux mixture was too slow in its action, since practi- 
3ally none of the copper contained in it was soluble in pure 
v\ ater. Another reason was advanced for this tard}^ action of 
the Bordeaux mixture: Millardet and Gay on said* that no cop- 
per could be absorbed by foliage until all the excess of lime 
bad been formed into the carbonate. This process was sup- 
posed to require from a week to a week and a half. They 
said^ that the change took place faster during a fine rain, but 
3ven then it apx^eared that the immediate action of the mixture 
as soon as applied was, at the best, but very slight. The greater 
the excess of lime, the longer appeared to be the time I'equired 
for the copper to enter into solution. 



1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1888, Dec. 20, 898. 

2 Ibid. Dec. 13, 851. 

3 Ibid. loc. cit. 

* Ibid. 1890, Feb. 20, 272. 

5 " Nouvelles Kecherches sur le Developpement et le Traitement du Mildiou et 
de I'Antliracnose," Millardet et Gayon, ISST, S-IS. 



42 The Spraying of Plants. 

Millardet and Gayon in 1887 conceived ^ the idea of making 
the Bordeaux mixture on a new plan. This consisted in leav- 
ing about the tenth of one per cent of dissolved copper sulphate 
in the mixture. As comparatively little was heard of this prep- 
aration, it is probable that the difficulty of its preparation was 
one reason w^hy it was not more extensively used. But others 
Avere at work upon the problem and it was eventually solved. 

B. Pons, a chemist at Limoux (Aude), worked at it from a 
chemical standpoint.'-^ He took advantage of the fact that when 
concentrated solutions of sugar and of copper sulphate are 
mixed with each other, there is eventually formed a precipitate 
which is a true sulphosaccharate of copper. This precipitate, 
when dry, is in the form of a very fine, bluish-white powder. 
Pons modified it in such a manner that the amount of dis- 
solved copper in the Bordeaux mixture could be regulated by 
the varying amounts of the powder used. His directions for 
preparing the mixture were as follows: 

Dissolve 2 kilos of this powder in 90 liters of cold water. 
Agitate for five to fifteen minutes. Add to this liquid, while 
stirring w^ell, 1 kilo of quicklime freshly slaked in 10 liters of 
water. Stir the mixture for about five minutes and it is then 
ready for use. At first it entirely resembles the Bordeaux mix- 
ture as commonly prepared, but when this precipitate is allowed 
to settle the liquid above the sediment is of a blue color, whereas 
in the common Bordeaux it is clear. One-fourth of the copper 
contained in the mixture is held in solution in this "Bordeaux 
mixture celeste " ; the preparation was so called by Pons. 

Pons sent some of this powder, which he called the sulpho- 
saccharate of copper, to Millardet and Gayon in October, 1889, 
for the purpose of having it tested.^ They described it as a 
blue powder, as fine as ashes, but homogeneous in character. 
When prepared, the mixture was very alkaline, and the pre- 
cipitate was finer and more abundant than that found in the 
Bordeaux mixture. On this account the solid matter settled 

1 Millardet et Gayon, " Considerations raisonnees sur les divers Precedes de 
Traitement du Mildiou paries composes cuivreux," 1SS7, 14. See, also, E. Mach, 
" Bericht fiber die Ergebnisse der im Jahr 1886 ausgefiihrten Versuche zur Bektimp- 
fung der Peronospora," 1SS7, 20. 

2 Jou)'. (VAg. Pi-af. 1889, Dec. 12, 866. See, also, Barreswil, Jour, de Pharm- 
acie et de Chemie, Sine serie, vii. 1845, 29. 

3 Ibid. 1890, Feb. 20, 269. 



Sufiar and the Bordeaux Mixture. 43 

very slowly and the use of an agitator was almost unnecessary. 
When applied to tlie leaves, the preparation was very similar 
to the Bordeaux mixture in appearance. It adhered to the 
foliage equally well, aud although a large aiuount of copper 
was in solution, — 240 grams per hectoliter, — the foliage was in 
no case burned. These points appear to have been very thor- 
oughly tested the same year, for the leaves often remain on the 
vines until the end of Xovember. 

Michel Ferret was another who made use of this mutual 
action of sugar and copper. He announced in a meeting of the 
Societe Rationale d'Agriculture de France held Nov. 27, 1889 
(page 604 of the proceedings), that in cases of rapid invasion 
of the mildew the action of the Bordeaux mixture was too slow. 
He nuiintained that some copper should always be in solution, 
and said that he had obtained the desired result by means of 
sugar or molasses. He used the following formula : 

Copper sulphate 2 kilos. 

Carbonate of sodn 3 " 

Water 15 liters. 

The copper sulphate was dissolved in the water, and the soda 
crystals were then added. When the precipitation of the copper 
ceased, there was added to the above 



Molasses 200-500 



errams. 



The mixture was then allowed to stand twelve hours, and 
then Ferret added 

Water 1 hectoliter. 

The finished mixture is of a deep green color and is very ad- 
hesive. His experiments of that year showed that this new 
mixture preserved the vines better than any other in use at the 
time. In a letter written later,i Ferret says that it suffices to 
use 200 grams of molasses, or one-tentli of the weight of copper 
sulphate, to render soluble the amount of copper oxide necessary 
for the rapid action desired. If a larger amount of molasses be 
added, the effect is simply to increase the amount of dissolved 
coi)per. 

1 Jour. WAg. Frat. ISDO, Jau. 30, 1S3. 



44 The Spraying of Plants 

It was stated i by Patrigeoii that the addition of 500 grams 
of dextrine per hectoliter of those fungicides having a sohition 
of copper carbonate for their principal ingredient, would render 
them more adhesive. The dextrine should first be dissolved in 
warm water, and then added to the copper solution. 

George Bencker gives an account of the treatments for mil- 
dew as carried on in 1890, at the School of Agriculture, at 
Montpellier, France.- The experiments were conducted by 
Duchien. The list of substances used is interesting from the 
fact that it shows which materials the French at that time con- 
sidered as having value. The liquids tested were as follows : 

Bordeaux mixture ; Bordeaux mixture celeste, containing 
copper sulphate, lime, sugar, and aluminum calcide ; Bordeaux 
mixture and glue ; mixture of carbonate of soda and sulphate 
of copper ; gelatinous hydrocarbonate of copper ; verdet ; and 
a mixture of chloride of calcium and alum. The powders : 
Skawinski's powder ; Skawinski's sulphur ; cuproste;itite ; sul- 
phosteatite; sulphocyanide of copper; sulphated verdet; sulphur 
with the hydrate of copper ; sulphated sulphur ; cuprophos- 
phate ; 3 and sulphur and cuprophosphate. 

Verdet was selected as being the most valuable of the above 
materials, but later work has not substantiated this conclu- 
sion. Verdet is an acetate of copper. There are many such 
combinations, all being known under the general name of ver- 
det, or verdigris. The form used by Bencker was that techni- 
cally known as the dibasic acetate of copper. It requires to be 
soaked in water three or four days before it is used, so that as 
much as possible will dissolve. It may be applied at the rate ": 
of one or two kilos in a hectoliter of water. '« 

De Capol prepared the hydrate of copper as follow^s:^ Dis- 
solve 2 kilos of copper sulphate in 20 liters of water. To this 
add 1 liter ammonia. The oxide of copper is precipitated, and 
when it has settled to the bottom of the vessel the liquid above 
is drawn off. This liquid contains sulphate of ammonia in 

1 BiiUetin de la Societe des AgricuUeurs de France, 1889, Oct. 15, 795. Also, 
Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1890, May 15, 703. 

2 Progres Agricole, 1890, Dec. 7, 510; Annals Iforf. 1890, 82. 

3 This material is easily made by uniting solutions of sodium phosphate and 
copper sulphate. It is thrown down as a precipitate, the other compounds remain- 
ing in solution. 

4 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1889, March 7, 367. 



I 

i 



The Use of Su^ohuric Acid. 45 

solution, and should be used for fertilizing purposes. The pre- 
cipitate is then treated with 10 liters of ammonia and there is 
obtained a normal solution. Dilute forty times when applying. 
I)e Capol believed this to be an excellent preventive against the 
mildew, and he also said that it would not burn the foliage. 
The preparation, however, never came into general use. 

JNIessrs. Skawinski were among the first in France to use 
Schnorf's remedy for anthracnose. But their experience sug- 
gested to them a change in the preparation, which led to a 
general modification of the old formula. They remarked that 
the action of the iron sulphate was stronger when sulphuric 
acid was present in considerable quantities with the crystals. 
They consequently adopted the following : 

Iron sulphate 50 kilos. 

Sulphuric acid, 53° i 1 liter. 

Warm water 1 hectoliter. 

The best method of making the solution is to pour the acid 
upon the crystals of iron sulphate, and then slowly to add the 
water. The amount to be used during the day is made in 
the morning ; if the mate]-ial is allowed to stand for twenty- 
four hours or more the salt re-crystallizes, and the applications 
will not be so efficacious. Skawinski washed the grape wood 
once during the first days of February. The immediate effect 
upon the wood is to blacken it, and if this color is not uni- 
formly shown, a second application is made to those portions 
which were not touched by tlie first treatment. The above 
formula has not been uniformly adopted in France, for some 
growers prefer to increase the amount of acid, and others de- 
crease the amount of iron salt. But as the practice of spraying 
with such a solution has been well established, and since good 
results generally follow the treatment, it is safe to say that so 
long as the plants are uninjured, the use of a definite formula 
is of minor importance. 

In 1890 Dr. G. Patrigeon gave the following directions re- 
garding tlie treatment of grape mildew.- He advised that the 
first application be made about the middle of May in southern 
France, and during the first week in June in the more northern 

1 This grade of acid was used because it is less dangerous to liandle. 

2 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1890, May 8, 660. 



46 The Spraying of Playits. 

parts of the country. The second treatment should be made 
three weeks later, and a third again in three or four weeks. In 
case of necessity a fourth should be made early in September. 
He further advised that the material should be applied lavishly, 
during the first treatment in particular, and that the leaves 
should be thoroughly covered. He also said that it should be 
made a point to cover the young grapes, a recommendation 
which does not appear to have been made before. When the 
Bordeaux mixture was first coming into use, Millardet said one 
should be careful not to strike the grapes, and he also made the 
statement that if only a small amount of the mixture fell upon 
the leaf it would still afford ample protection. Experience evi- 
dently had shown that the work cannot be done too thoroughly. 

Patrigeon did not favor the use of powders for the following 
reasons : they require moist foliage to adhere well ; they can be 
applied only when the air is still ; more applications have to be 
made ; and the vines are not so well protected.^ 

He considered as entirely unfit for use upon foliage the simple 
solution of copper sulphate, and the eau celeste of Audoynaud, 
because they burned the leaves. The materials which could be 
advantageously applied were reduced to those mixtures or solu- 
tions that contain copper in the form of the hydrate (hydrate 
oxide) or of the hydrocarbonate. There were several of these 
already in use. 

Patrigeon was the first to use and to advise the use of the 
ferrocyanide of potassium as a test for determining the proper 
amount of lime required in making the Bordeaux mixture.'^ 
His directions were to add to the Bordeaux mixture a few 
drops of a 20 per cent solution of this chemical. So long as 
dissolved copper exists in the mixture, the addition of the 
ferrocyanide of potassium causes a reddish brown precipitate 
to appear. Lime should be added till no change takes place 
when the reagent is added. Some vineyardists used blue 
litmus paper for the same purpose.^ 

During these years the diseases which affect grapes received 
by far the most attention. Jouet and Prillieux were among 

^ Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1890, May 8, 660. See also, "Reunion publique des 
Viticiilteurs du Midi," held at Montpellier, March 4, 1890. 

2 Ibid. May 15, TOl. 

3 A. Petit, Le Progres Agricule, 1890, June 1, 441. 



Adhesive Properties of Fungicides. 47 

the first to use the remedies (see page 29) on other plants, and 
some expei'imenters soon follo^Yed their example. Ainie Girard ^ 
in 1888 and 1889 made some very conclusive experiments upon 
the potato. Among the points emphasized by him may be 
mentioned the fact that curative applications do not assure 
complete immunity ; he also noticed that there was a great 
difference in the varieties as regards their susceptibility to the 
disease. 

Chatrin applied the Bordeaux mixture to pears in 1890 ^ for 
a disease commonly known as " tavelure." It is caused by a 
fungus, FusicI odium pijrinum, and his applications are said to 
have been followed by good results. Another fungous disease 
commonly known as " cloque," probably due to some species of 
Taphrina or Exoascus, was receiving attention.^ The trouble 
is mentioned as affecting peach trees. It causes the leaves to 
curl in a manner similar to that which is only too frequently 
seen in America. Lesne advised growers to spray their trees 
with the Bordeaux mixture, but this recommendation does not 
appear to have been founded upon successful work. 

Aime Girard* conducted some experiments to test upon 
potato foliage the adhesive powers of various fungicides. His 
conclusions are as follows : 

"1. Copper compounds adhere to foliage with different de- 
grees of persistence. 

" 2. Under the action of severe rains, copper disappears 
largely on account of the mechanical action of tlie water. 

" 3. Among these compositions the one which washes the most 
is the Bordeaux mixture of various formulas. The diminution 
of the proportion of lime augments a little the adhesive power ; 
but the addition of aluminous materials does not produce any 
sensible amelioration. 

" 4. The precipitated carbonate of copper (houillie cupro- 
sodique) on the one hand, and verdet on the other, have the 
faculty of adhering almost twice as well as the Bordeaux mix- 
ture. But above all others Ferret's mixture of copper, lime, 
and sugar [see page 48] resists the action of rains remarkably 
well. Therefore the last is to be preferred, other things being 
equal, and its use is advised." 

1 Jour. (VA(j. Prat. 1S90, June 5, 803. 3 Ibid. 1891, May 21, T3G. 

2 Ibid. Nov. 20, 755. * Ibid. 1892, Feb. 4, 177. 



48 The Spraying of Plants. 

In 1891 ]\Iillardet and Gayon also made a comparative test 
of various fungicides.^ Their work, however, did not consider 
mainly the adhesive power of the fungicides, but rather their 
general efficiency. During 1890 they applied the sulphosaccha- 
rate of copper of B. Pons (see page 42). The downy mildew was 
not sufficiently severe to show the value of the fungicide and 
no report could be made. In 1891 Pons sent another prepara- 
tion to INIillardet and Gayon, this being known under the con- 
venient term " boidllie hordelaise celeste a poiidre unique." It 
was in the form of a very fine blue powder, and was composed 
essentially of the powder of Bordeaux mixture celeste, sulphate 
of copper, the carbonate and the bicarbonate of soda. 

The amount of the powder used per hectoliter of water was 
two kilos, this containing exactly one kilo of copper sulphate. 
The powder was added to the water, was thoroughly stirred, 
and then applied. The material is so fine that it settles very 
slowly, probably not before twenty-four hours ; the liquid 
above it is blue and contains a little more than one-tent]i of 
the total amount of copper in solution in the form of the bi- 
carbonate. 

The above preparation was used in comparison with the 
following : the Bordeaux mixture as commonly made (see page 
40), Bordeaux mixture celeste (see page 42), Bourguignonne 
mixture (see page 32), Berrichone mixture of Dr. Patrigeon (see 
page 37), Bordeaux mixture and the sulphate of ammonia, and 
Bordeaux mixture and glue (see page 28). The results of these 
applications were as follows : 

" 1. All the mixtures, containing equal amounts of copper, 
have shown an equal degree of efficiency, and the attack of 
mildew was severe. The mixture containing the sulphate of 
ammonia burned the foliage occasionally and is therefore more 
uncertain in its action than are the others. 

" 2. The mixtures which contain copper in a state of solution 
do not appear to be more active than the common Bordeaux 
mixture and the Bourguignonne mixture, each of which con- 
tains none. In no case was there for some time a hard rain 
after the applications, a circumstance which should diminish 
the efficiency of these two preparations, and augment compar- 
atively the efficiency of the others. 

1 Joiir. d\ig. Prat. 1892, Feb. IS, 231. 



Latci^t French Methods. 49 

" 3. TJie bouillie bordelaise celeste a poudre uni(|ue is as 
effective as the others. This is an important point, for the 
mixture is easily prepared and it dispenses entirely with lime, 
which is the main objection to the Bordeanx mixture. 

"•4. The use of one kilo of copper sulphate in these mixtures 
is not sufficient for obtaining the best results in treatments 
similar to those just mentioned. If more of the sulphate is not 
used, a larger number of applications must be made, or more 
material used at each application." 

A case is mentioned ^ in which applications of sulphosteatite 
were followed by as good results as could be expected from the 
use of the Bordeaux mixture. At Xorbonne, Cenon, and in 
other portions of France near Bordeaux, this powder had 
been regularly used for years in tlie prevention of ndldew, and 
it proved to be very efficient in preserving the fruit as well as 
tlie foliage of the viue, even during seasons when untreated 
plants lost all their leaves. At the estate of Andoque de 
Seriege, near Norbonne, the powder was applied throughout 
the vineyards in connection with sulphur. In this manner 
both the downy mildew and the oidium were simultaneously 
treated. Some growers in this region used the Bordeaux mix- 
ture early in the season, and sulphosteatite for later applications. 

At present but little experimental work is being done with 
fungicides in Frauce. The Bordeaux mixture has become by 
far the most popular fungicide, and there are now no indica- 
tions of a superior article to replace it. Fungous diseases do 
not appear to be so generally severe in Europe as in America, 
and this accounts for the fact that grapes and potatoes, which 
are the plants most seriously attacked, are the only ones gener- 
ally treated. Applications are made upon other plants as well, 
but only to a limited extent, and for less serious diseases. 

The vineyards of France commonly receive the following 
applications, the work being considered as a regular duty, co- 
ordinate w4th cultivation or pruning. It is an established fact 
that the vines must be sprayed, and the work is done essentially 
as follows. Three or four applications, depending upon the 
season, are considered sufficient : 

1. The vines are sprayed when in blossom, or soon after, with 
the Bordeaux mixture. 

1 Jvur. d'Ag. Prat. 1S92, Feb. 18, 231. 



50 The Spraying of Plants. 

2. The application is rej)eated in fonr or five weeks. 

3. The niixtnre is applied within three to six weeks after the 
second treatment. If the weather is inclined to be wet, a 
shorter interval is allowed between the two. 

4. A fonrth application is not regularly made. In case of a 
wet season it is made three or four weeks after the third. A 
fifth treatment is rarely thought necessary. 

Insecticides. 

The insecticides in use in France during these years are, with 
few exceptions, still of the same general character as those used 
in the past. Black soap was very commonly employed. It 
was recommended, 1 in connection witli amylic alcohol, for the 
destruction of the ^'puceron lanigere" (woolly aphis). The 
formula given is : 

Black soap 35 grams. 

Amylic alcohol 60 " 

Water 1 hter. 

Dissolve the soap in the water and then add the alcohol. The 
material was applied by means of a broom or a syringe. The 
alcohol was sometimes replaced by 10 percent of phenic acid, this 
and the soap forming an emulsion. 

Other recommendations for the destruction of the same insect 
have also been made.^ In addition to the black soap wash are 
mentioned : 



Aloes 4 grams. 

Water 1 liter. 



Also, 

Oxalic acid 15 grams. 

Water 1 liter. 

And another, a commercial preparation : 

Insecticide Fichet 250-300 grams. 

Water 10 liters. 

1 Joi(,r. d'Ag. Prat. 1SS7, May 12, 680. 2 j^,/,/. juue 30, 923. 



Insecticides. 51 

Tlie most important additions to the list of insecticides made 
in France were American remedies. During 1884, Professor 
C. V. Kiley of the Agricultural Department at Washington, 
visited France, and in an address delivered before the Societe 
Centrale d'Agriculture de I'lierault, June 30, 1884, he spoke of 
the emidsions of kerosene with milk or soap, of the arsenites 
as used in America, and of pyrethrum.i The formula for mak- 
ing the first preparation was as follows : 

Petroleum 8 liters. 

Common soap 175 grams. 

Water 4 liters. 

Dilute with water as experience may suggest. The directions 
were slightly modified in later years, but on the whole this 
remedy was soon widely used in France. 

Although the attention of experimenters was more particu- 
larly directed towards the fungous diseases of plants, various 
other insecticides were tested. 

For large caterpillars, Leizour advised the use of 

Water 25 liters. 

Sulphide of potassium 100 grams. 

Black soap 250 " 

The soap and the sulphide of potassium are separately dis- 
solved in a few liters of water. The two are mixed, and the 
remaining amount of water is added immediately before the 
applications are made. 

A remedy supposed to be particularly valuable for the de- 
struction for the woolly aphis was made by taking. 

Water 100 grams. 

Benzine 50 " 

Strong glue 10 " 

This was to be applied in March and April. A decoction of 
datura plants, when used with the sulphate of iron, was also 
recommended, as well as amylic alcohol and soap water.^ 

Another preparation of a more complicated character was 
recommended for the same insects. Chemicals having proved 

1 Message)' Agrieole, 1SS4, July 10, 255. 

2 Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1890, June 19, 901. 



52 The Spraying of Plants. 

so valuable in the destruction of fungi, it was probably sup- 
posed that some material could be found which would bear 
the same relation to insects that the copper compounds do to 
the mildew. The idea was certainly a good one, but since no 
such substance at that time in general use by the French has 
remained as a leading remedy, their new introductions appear 
to have been at least only partially successful. The use of the 
following formula was advised : 

Salicylic acid 2 grams. 

Red oxide of mercury 2 " 

Pyrolignic acid 1000 ' ' 

The above was diluted with 30 parts of water when applied. 

The cochylis (CocJiylis roserana) is an insect which often does 
much damage in French vineyards, as it feeds upon the leaves 
and the inner portions of the berries. One preparation which 
was recommended ^ for its destruction is made as follows : 

Carbonate of soda 100 grams. 

Rain water 1 hectoliter. 

When dissolved add to the solution a mixture of 

Carbon bisulphide 1 part. 

Oil (Colsa, etc.) 1 " 

The last two ingredients form an oleo-sulphide of carbon, 10 
liters of which are poured into each liectoliter of the carbonate 
of soda solution, thus forming an emulsion of carbon bisul- 
phide. Quantin, director of the agricultural laboratory of Loiret, 
said he had freed his vines of the cochylis by means of the 
above remedy. 

A. Lesne^ tried experiments with eighty preparations for the 
destruction of the cochylis. His w^ork showed that a prepara- 
tion of pyrethrum and soap gave the best results. He had it 
tested by thirty-seven vineyardists and most of them reported 
favorably regarding it. The ingredients used were 

Black soap 3 kilos. 

Warm water 10 liters. 

Pyrethrum powder 1-1^ kilos. 

1 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1S91, Aug. 6, 209. 2 IhUJ. 1892, May 5, 639. 






Present Methods in Continental Europe. 53 

The pyrethruin is added to the soap solution and tlie two are 
well stirred ; 90 liters of cold water are then put in, and the 
mixture is ready for use. 

]\Iany other preparations were made, but they were composed 
principally of the ingredients mentioned above, although the 
combinations and the proportions varied more or less ; petro- 
leum, however, is very often mentioned in them. 

The arsenites have not as yet been applied to any consider- 
able extent, and the use of pyrethrum has been limited, yet the 
time may come when the former will be applied as freely as is 
now done in America. 

II. In Italy. 

Italian horticulturists have followed the French so closely that 
little can be said concerning the discovery of new methods in 
Italy. Milk of lime gave great promise during the first year of 
the invasion of the downy mildew, as already mentioned on page 
20. But this substance was soon replaced by the copper com- 
pounds, and the French methods were adopted almost as early 
as they were in France. At present, the Bordeaux mixture is 
also the standard fungicide in Italy, and sprayed vines can 
everywhere be seen during the summer months. 

Italian chemists have, however, taken the lead in the study of 
the various materials used as fungicides, and the principal re- 
sults of their work of this nature will be found in the chapter 
treating of the materials and formulas used in spraying. 

III. In Other Continental European Countries. 

The European mildew of the grape (Oidium Tiickeri) is said^ 
to have been introduced from England into Germany about 
forty years ago, and from there it spread to France, the Tyrol, 
and Italy, causing much damage. The remedy generally adopted 
was to apply flowers of sulphur upon the fruit and foliage, and 
this proved effectual in preventing its ravages. 

The downy mildew, however, was introduced into Europe by 
way of southern France. Although it was rapidly disseminated, 

1 Held, " Weinbau," 1S94, 125. 



54 The Spraying of Plants. 

the proper remedies for its control were soon found, and as the 
disease became more widely distributed, the best remedies dis- 
covered in the region first attacked were adopted by the newly 
infected districts, with practically no modification. It has thus 
been brought about that the Bordeaux mixture, the ammoniacal 
solution of copper carbonate, the eau celeste, and solutions of 
copper sulphate, have become standard remedies in those coun- 
tries which have been last to suffer from the imported American 
diseases. These fungicides are generally applied as in France. 
In Germany, however, care is taken that no applications are made 
during the blossoming period, and there seem to be good reasons 
for the practice. Later applications are made often enough to 
prevent injury from fungi, the numbers varying from two to 
five, three being more commonly made. Anthracnose of the 
vine is treated as in France, and appears to be held under con- 
trol without much difficulty. 

Confidence has thus again been restored where not more than 
ten years ago there prevailed the greatest anxiety regarding 
the future of the grape industry. 



IV. In England. 

The English have been slow to adopt new remedies for plant 
diseases. While French growers were struggling to overcome the 
downy mildew of the grape and the rot of potatoes, British gar- 
deners were practically helpless in dealing with them. Even after 
success had rewarded their southern neighbors, the new methods 
were but slowly adopted in England. The horticultural jour- 
nals of that country, on the contrary, were quick to see the value 
of the w^ork that was being done, and the French recommenda- 
tions were repeatedly published. The first account appears to 
have been given in The Gardeners' Chronicle.'^ This was a trans- 
lation of a report made by Prillieux, inspector-general of agricul- 
tural education, to the minister of agriculture of France, regarding 
the value of a mixture of copper sulphate and lime against the 
mildew of the vine. The account contains a brief history of the 
work done in the Medoc, and also mentions the names of the 
men who were most prominently connected with it. 



1 Gard. Chron. 1885, Nov. 7, 594. 



Spraying in England. 55 

The sulphide of potassium was at one time very highly recom- 
mended in England. It was first successfully applied by Ed- 
mund Tonks.i He used one-half ounce in a pint of water, and 
it proved to be very effective in controlling the mildew of 
roses. This soon became one of the best known remedies in 
England, and may have been influential in delaying the adop- 
tion of French practices. 

A note published in 1887 ^ says that "the sulphate of copper 
is being used largely in America and France against mildew on 
vines. It is even suggested as a remedy for potato mildew, but 
as this grows in the interior of the plant it is difficult to see that 
it can effect much good. Amongst several methods of apply- 
ing the copper solution, the simplest is to dissolve 1 pound of 
the pure sulphate in 25 gallons of water. Spray the vines 
with a force-pump wdth a nozzle of fine aperture. The addi- 
tion of 1 pint of ammonia to the above solution adds to the 
effect. By ammonia we presume a solution of the carbonate is 
intended." 

The progress made in France w^as carefully watched by some 
of the English journals. The results of the more important 
experiments \7ere published, and English gardeners were not 
wanting in information regarding the value of the copper com- 
pounds. A few of the more important articles may here be 
mentioned. The Gardeners' Chronicle was especially active in this 
respect, and in 1888 ^ it gave an account of the method of mak- 
ing the Bordeaux nuxture as recommended by Prillieux. Three 
weeks later* it speaks of the experiments of Prillieux regarding 
the treatment of potatoes for the blight. These experiments 
were very successful, and if the methods had been adopted in 
England great losses would have been prevented. During 
January of the following year ^ there appeared a translation of 
an article in the Bevue Horticole regarding the proper manufact- 
ure and nse of the sulphate of copper and lime mixture. Sev- 
eral such translations were made during 1890, but these were 
apparently not heeded until 1891, ^ when the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England conducted some experiments for the preven- 
tion of blight upon potatoes. These experiments are probably 

1 Gard. Chron. 1885, Feb. 28, 276. * Ibid. Sept. 22, 832. 

2 Ibid. 1887, Aug. 6, 166. 5 ji,ia. 1889, Jan. 12, 50. 
a Ibid. 1888, Sept. 1, 244. c /^^v?. 1891, Aug. 1, 137. 



56 The Spraying of Plants. 

the first of any importance which were undertaken in England, 
yet they were not begun until four years after the value of the 
copper compounds had been known there. Messrs. Sutton and 
Sons undertook a similar work. These first trials were not so 
successful as had been hoped, and undoubtedly prevented, to a 
certain extent, the more general adoption of the remedies. 

The French authorities were almost exclusively quoted until 
1891. By this time the work in America had assumed such 
proportions that much information of a very varied character 
was continually appearing. This was freely abstracted by the 
English journals, and during 1890 and 1891, doubts regarding 
the value of the copper compounds as fungicides were partially 
removed from the minds of English gardeners. But faith came 
slowly. The Highland and Agricultural Society made ex- 
periments which were discouraging in their results,^ and as a 
rule the first trials were not followed by such marked benefits 
as were reported from continental Europe. As the methods of 
making the application improved, however, the growers became 
encouraged, and during the last two or three years potatoes have 
been very generally treated with copper compounds for the 
blight by the more progressive growers. The successful issue 
of experiments made in the Uiiited States has, no doubt, ma- 
terially assisted in bringing about this result. 

The new insecticides have been adopted by English gardeners 
even more slowly than were the fungicides. Although the value 
of kerosene for the destruction of insect life has long^ been 
known there, its use is still very limited. This, in all probabil- 
ity, is due to the fact that the remedies already at hand are so 
effective that little demand is felt for others, — a condition of 
affairs upon which English gardeners are to be congratulated. 

The arsenites also are very rarely applied, not only in England 
but throughout Em-ope. Their use is not so imperatively de- 
manded as in America, and as there is a certain amount of 
danger in having them upon the premises, they have not been 
looked upon with favor. The use of arsenic for the destruc- 
tion of insects is by no means a novelty in England. Mr. 
Gordon, the superintendent of the ornamental department of the 

1 The Garden, 1892, Feb. 6, 133, based upon an article appearing in the 
Morning Post. 

2 Gard. Chron. 18S2, July 15, 85. Also known as Paraffine in England. 



spraying in Australasia. 57 

garden of the London Horticultural Society, says that 'Ismail 
)rown ants are also very troublesome [to orchid growers], but 
hey may be destroyed by placing sugar and arsenic, ground to 
LU impalpable powder, on bits of card near the places they fre- 
luent." 1 A fear of poisoned fruit following the use of arsenic 
las also been expressed, and this, although perfectly groundless, 
las worked against the introduction of such remedies. But 
levertheless, spraying has now become the rule and not the 
ixception in some parts of England. ^ This applies particu- 
arl}^ to " the various fruit farms around Evesham and Pershore " 
md may also be true of other localities. The benefits derived 
rom the practice are being appreciated, and eventually all 
growers must see the necessity of its adoption. 

y. In Australasia. 

Plants suffer from disease wherever they may be grown. 
1 they are introduced into a new locality, the old diseases fol- 
ow them. Such has been the case in Australia and Tasmania, 
riiese countries have recently taken a prominent position as 
H'oducers of fine fruit, but here, as elsewhere, the horticulturist 
nust be constantly on the alert to save his crop from some other 
ilaimant. The spray evidently did not meet with much opposi- 
ion in those far-away lands, but it was welcomed as an agent 
vhich would assist in the production of more perfect crops. As 
!arly as 1886, F. S. Crawford ^ experimented with ferrous sul- 
phate and later he recommended its use at the rate of one 
)ound to ten gallons. It was only to be applied to dormant 
vood. The following compounds are also mentioned, all but 
lie fi.rst two being quoted from American publications : car- 
)olic acid emulsion, copper sulphate, eau celeste (Audoynaud 
)rocess), eau celeste (modified formula), Bordeaux mixture, 
lulphatine, sulphatine (Davenport's modification), and David's 
Dowder. 

1 George Gordon in a paper, " Notes on the Proper Treatment of Epiphytal 
)rchids," Jour, of the London Ilort. Soc. iv. 19, communicated in Nov. 1S48. 

2 Joicr. of the Royal Ilort. Soc. 1895, Jan. 185. 

3 Extract from a paper bj' F. S. Crawford, read at the Congress of the Central 
3ureau of Agriculture of South Australia, held in Adelaide, 1890, March 4-7. Cited 
n Gard. Chron. 1890, July 19, G9, 



58 The Spraying of Plants. 

Tasmania has been remarkably vigorous in figliting insect 
and fungous pests, and the government has passed a law (52 
Vict. No. 16) which makes it a finable offense for a grower to 
neglect cleaning his orchard: 

" ' The Colony of Tasmania is divided into thirty " fruit dis- 
tricts " to make better provision for the destruction of the 
codlin-moth. Every person who sells, or offers for sale, any 
fruit infected with the moth is liable to a penalty of five 
pounds. 

'' ' Bandages to be placed upon the trunks of the trees not 
later than December in each year. 

" ' Farmers shall remove all rough and scaly bark from trees, 
and burn or otherwise effectually destroy such bark as soon as 
removed.' 

" Similar methods are in use in Australia. There are persons 
appointed by the Agricultural Bureau in each district (I believe 
there are eighty odd districts in Australia, and over thirty in 
Tasmania) to see that the law is not evaded." ^ 

1 Jour, of the Royal Hart. Soc. 1895, Jan. 185. 



CHAPTER III. 

SPEAYI^''G /iY AMERICA. 

I. Ix THE United States. 

Spraying for Leaf-eating Insects and the CocUin-moth. 

It was not until about 1860, when a ravenous [insect — the 
currant worm — had been introduced into the Eastern States, 
and another — the potato beetle — into the Western, that Amer- 
ican farmers fully realized the necessity of discovering some 
materials which would be more energetic in the destruction of 
insect life than any at that time in common use. Hellebore 
was only partially successful in treating the currant worm, as 
the fresh article could not always be obtained, and it was of 
little value after having been long exposed to the air. The 
insecticidal value of kerosene had long been known, but the 
use of the oil was not understood, so that it was only sparingly 
applied. In the Eastern States, therefore, the progress of the 
currant worm was not very seriously checked, and the majority 
of the plants were defoliated year after year. 

Since the insecticides then known were of so little value in 
exterminating a soft-bodied, chewing insect like the currant 
worm, how much less would be their effect upon such a vigor- 
ous and well-protected individual as the potato beetle ! This 
insect, a native of the Rocky Mountains, began to travel east- 
ward when potato culture had extended so far to the west that 
the plant was grown in the territory occupied by the beetle. It 
then left the plants upon which it had been feeding, and at- 
tacked the potato vines. The march to the east then followed. 
In 1859 the insect had " reached a point one hundred miles to 
the west of Omaha City, in Nebraska." ^ In 1868 it extended 

1 liUey, " Potato Pests," ISTO, 12. 
59 



60 The Spraying of Playits. 

to central Missouri and southern Illinois. In July, 1870, the 
insect was found in Ontario, Canada; and in 1872 it arrived 
in central New York. Two years later, it reached the Atlantic 
coast, having crossed nearly two-thirds of the continent in the 
short space of fifteen years. 

The insects ate as vigorously as they traveled. Potato 
fields were stripped of every vestige of foliage ; desolation 
could everywhere be seen ; and as this increased, the yield of 
tubers decreased. At first, it seemed as if nothing could stop 
the ravages of the pest, and it threatened the entire potato 
industry of the country. All known remedies failed, and the 
future must have appeared dark to the Western planters, until 
some remedy could be found that would destroy the beetles, 
and save the foliage of the vines. 

Fortunately, this remedy was not long in coming ; but wlio 
first suggested it, and who first used it for the destruction of 
the potato beetle, will perhaps never be told. Paris green 
appeared upon the scene sometime between 1860 and 1870. 
The use of this deadly poison may have originated with sev- 
eral persons ; for some poison of this nature was evidently 
needed to destroy such a voracious feeder. The use of Paris 
green as a standard insecticide undoubtedly began in the 
Western States, and there the applications to the vines were 
considered as of primary importance in securing a crop. The 
use of the poison was, to a limited extent, checked by the 
possible dangers connected with its careless handling. It is 
also very injurious to foliage, when applied pure, especially in 
large quantities, and this may have exerted a certain influence 
in preventing its general adoption. But the weight of these 
objections was soon overcome by the absolute necessity of 
treating the vines in order to save them. 

In 1868 the value of the poison appears to have been fairly 
well known, 1 one man going so far as to obtain a patent upon 
a mixture of one part Paris green and two of mineral paint. ■^ 

'^American EntomologiM, 1S69, July, 219, citing from the Galena (Ills.) 
Gazette. The editors of the Am. Ent. also carried on experiments in 186S. See, 
also, an account of the experiments made by Saunders and Reed, in which were 
tested Paris green, arsenious acid, copper sulphate, bichromate of potash, powdered 
hellebore, carbonate of lime, and ashes mLxed with air-slaked lime ; none of these, 
except Paris green, were found to be of value. Canadian Entomoloyid, 1871, 
July, 41. 2 EUey, U. S. Ent. Com. 1880, Bull. 3, 57. 



Spraying with Paris Green. 61 

In after years, several other patents were granted upon various 
mixtures in which this poison held a prominent position. ^ The 
arsenite was most generally applied, however, by being mixed 
with flour, plaster, or ashes, the proportions varying from two 
to ten or twelve parts of the diluent to one of the poison. 
The proportion of poison was greatly reduced in later years, 
only one part to twenty-five or thirty being used. 

Applications of Paris green, when mixed with water, do not 
appear to have been commonly made during the first few years 
following the introduction of the poison. The difficulty of 
transporting the water appears to have been one of the main 
objections to this method ; and another, perhaps an even more 
serious one, was the imperfect distribution which resulted from 
sprinkling the plants with the aid of only very unsatisfactory 
appliances, watering-cans or brooms being at first used for this 
purpose. It is only since the introduction of improved ma- 
chinery that the poison has been generally applied in this 
manner. 

Tlie success attending the use of Paris green in the destruc- 
tion of the potato-beetle soon suggested its application to plants 
that suffered from similar insect pests. In 1872 Riley sug- 
gested the treatment of cotton plants w^ith Paris green for 
the destruction of the cotton worm.^ It was advised to use 
from one-half to one pound of the poison in forty gallons of 
water, this being considered as sufficient for a single treatment 
of an acre. The poison is still extensively used, although the 
proportions of the water and the arsenite have varied. 

Le Baron, in 1872, made a suggestion which was followed 
by consequences vastly more important than w^ere probably 
dreamed of by its originator. The spring canker-worm of the 
apple was doing much damage in the West, and in spite of the 
many devices invented for its capture or destruction, the pest 
continued to spread, and serious losses were inflicted. The 
recommendations made by Le Baron,^at that time state entomol- 
ogist of Illinois, were for the growers to place their main reli- 
ance upon measures which prevented the insect from gaining 
a foothold in the trees. In case such precautions should be 

1 Riley, U. S. Eni. Com. 1S80, Bull. 3, 5T. 

2 Ibid. 56. 

3 Second Ann. RejA. on the Noxious ImseeU of the State of Illinois, 1S72, 116 



62 The Spraying of Plants. 

neglected, however, lie says that " strong washes, sncli as Paris 
green water, or suds made from the whale-oil soap, thrown 
upon the trees with a garden syringe, will also materially check 
their depredations." This is the first statement which I have 
been able to find in which the syringing, or s]3raying, of apple 
trees with Paris green is recommended, and it was adopted to a 
limited extent in Illinois in 1873.1 

This note attracted but little attention on the whole. It was 
not until four years later that Cook advised the use of Paris 
green for the destruction of canker-worms, and even at that 
date its use was supposed to injure the tree at certain times, and 
the total loss of fruit was not thought improbable.''^ In 1878 
many orchardists in Michigan sprayed their trees with a mix- 
ture of Paris green and water, and from that time the use 
of this poison has been considered, in that state, as the best 
means of destroying the pest.^ Eastern growers, with scarcely 
an exception, were slow to imitate the more progressive Western 
pomologists. As late as 1877, H. T. Brooks still recommended 
to the members of the Western New York Horticultural So- 
ciety the use of bandages upon apple trees to prevent insects 
from ascending the trunks ; and two years later a member of 
the same society "had known them [the cankerworms] de- 
stroyed by showering the trees with a solution of Paris 
green." ^ 

Paris green, or some other form of arsenic, was nevertheless 
destined to play another important part in the destruction of 
insects that were injurious to apples. The codlin-moth, which 
in the larval stage causes apples to be " wormy," was flourishing 
unchecked upon this fruit throughout the Central and Eastern 
States. Several remedies were suggested, but none appeared to 
possess much practical value. An effectual remedy was eventu- 
ally found, not by entomologists, how^ever, but by practical 
growers. The first statement that attracted attention, and 
which was followed by close investigation, appears to have 
been made by Edward P. Haynes, in 1878. He was then living 
near Hess Road, Magara County, N.Y. In the spring of 1878 he 

1 Third Rept. U. 8. Ent. Com. lSSO-82, 192. 

2 Bept. Mich. Pom. Soo. 1876, 43. 

3 Ibid. 1878, 236. 

* Chapin, Iie2)i. of West. JV. Y. Hort. Soc. 1879, 74. 



Paris Green and the Codlin-motJi. 63 

applied to J. 8. Woodward, of Lockport, N.Y., for advice in 
regard to the best method of treating the canker-worms which 
were then ruining his apple trees. Mr. Woodward advised the 
use of Paris green. I will here quote from a letter which ]\lr. 
Woodward was so kind as to send me in May, 1894: "I ad- 
vised him to spray with Paris green, and w^ent with him to get 
the necessary apparatus. He took it home and used it, and 
when I saw him again the following fall, he told me of its hav- 
ing not only rid the orchard of canker-worms, but that the 
apples on the sprayed part were much less eaten by codlin- 
moths. I was so much interested that I went to see the or- 
chard and was convinced that the spraying had done what he 
had said. This fact I reported at the following, January, meet- 
ing of our society [West. N. Y. Hort. Soc] and shall never for- 
get this because of the way in which I was jumped upon as a 
crank." ^ The record, which may be found in the report of the 
society, is undoubtedly the first that gives an account of the 
successful treatment of the codlin-moth by means of Paris 
green. The same fact was also mentioned in a. meeting of the 
Michigan Pomological Society held in Hillsdale, Feb. 11-1.3, 
ISSO.'-^ At the annual meeting of this society, held at Ann Ar- 
bor, Dec. 6-8, 1880, Professor Cook reported having used the 
remedy suggested by j\Ir. Woodward with the following 
result : " I thoroughly sprayed some Siberian crab-apple trees 
the 25th of May, and again the 20th of June ; but I used Lon- 
don purple, 1 tablespoon to 2 gallons of water. The fruit 
of these trees has been seriously injured whenever they have 
borne during previous years. This year they were loaded with 
fruit, but careful examination, made Aug. 19th, discovered not 

1 Kept, of a meeting of the West. N. Y. llort. Soc, held in Rochester, 1S79, 
Jan. 22, 23, 20. It appears that the same discovery was also made at this time 
in Iowa. According to Rural Life of Ma}- 30, 1S95, 13. London purple was 
used in 1ST8 to destroy canker-worms, and this is said to have saved the crop 
from the codlin-moth : " Hon. John M. Dixon, of Oskaloosa, was then [1S77] 
trustee of the Iowa Agricultural College. He watched our work and concluded 
he would try spraying on his big orchard to destroy the canker-worm. In doing 
this he made a great discovery. The spraying was timely for destroying the 
codlin-moth. He marketed, in 1878, carloads of api)le.s in Minneapolis entirely 
free from worms or wormholes. Mr. Dixon and the writer [Professor Budd] told 
of these results in the horticultural reports and the press, 3-et so ftir as we know 
others have been given the credit for this i)ioneer work." 

2 Rept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 1880, 2G. 



64 The Spraying of Plants. 

a single injured apple. Other apple trees, only a few rods dis- 
tant, which were not treated with the poisonous liquid, are 
bearing fruit, one-fourth to one-half of which is ' wormy.' "i 
This is probably the first experiment made by an entomologist 
for the control of the codlin-moth by the use of an arsenical 
compound. Still, scientists were slow to recommend the use 
of tlie poison. The year following. Cook said : "I have been 
very successful in the use of Paris green, and others have, and 
for myself I would not hesitate to use it, but some of our best 
entomologists consider there is great danger in the use of this 
poison, and I prefer not to be put on record as recommending 
it for others' use. I used the poison on my own trees, and shall 
not hesitate to do so again." ^ Woodward at the same time 
said that the remedy was regularly used in western New York, 
where "two men will spray one hundred trees in half a day, 
. . . and I have yet to learn of a single instance where any one 
has been injured by the use of the poison." 

Notices of this work appeared in most of the leading agri- 
cultural papers. Yet comparatively little was lieard of the use 
of Paris green for the destruction of the codlin-moth during 
the next few years. Orchardists seemed to hesitate in apply- 
ing the poison for this insect, although it was quite freely used 
for the canker-worm. But very few of the most progressive 
men adopted the method, with apparently satisfactory results. 
After the establishment of the experiment stations, in fulfill- 
ment of the requirements of the Hatch bill of 1887, a new 
impetus was given to the adoption of the arsenites. As differ- 
ent experimenters published the results of their work, the value 
of the practice became more generally known, and gradually an 
ever-increasing number of growers accepted the assistance of 
the arsenites in the pi-oduction of perfect fruit. 

For several years after the discovery of the successful treat- 
ment of the canker-worm, recommendations regarding the 
destruction of other foliage-eating insects were more freely 
made than adopted. In the report of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for 1878, C. Y. Riley recommended the 
use of Paris green for the destruction of the following insects : 
Chapin's apple-leaf sewer, the thick-thighed walking stick, the 
imported elm-leaf beetle, the juniper web-worm, and the apple 

1 Rept. Mich. Pom. Soc. 18S0, 136. 2 jf^id^ isSl, 130. 



Introduction of Londoii Purple. Qb 

coleophora. The livst regular experiment station to publisli 
results of the use of Paris green for controlling the codlin-moth 
^^•as the New York State station ; ^ (loff had used it the pre- 
ceding year also with apparently good results against the 
squash vine borer.- It was in this and the following decade 
that Paris green and London purple established themselves 
firmly as the most vahuible agents for the destruction of chew- 
ing insects. 

London purple was early in the field as a rival of Paris green. 
It is cheaper than the latter, contains large amounts of arsenic, 
and can be more easily applied. But its composition is not so 
uniform, and it is more apt to injure foliage, so that on tiie 
whole Paris green has been preferred. London purple was 
manufactured in England, and I have been fortunate in learn- 
ing of the manner in which the poison was introduced into 
this country. Dr. C. E. Bessey, of Lincoln, Neb., was the first 
to use it for the destruction of the potato l)eetle, as a substitute 
for Paris green, and his work and that of Professor Budd of 
Ames, Iowa, first attracted public attention to the new insecti- 
cide. The name " London purple " was suggested by Dr. 
Bessey in 1878, and he has been so closely connected with the 
introduction of the poison that a letter received from him 
under date of Eel). 20, 1895, is here published in full : 

" In my file of letters I find that on Sept. 7, 1877, the Lon- 
don firm of Hemingway & Co., of 60 INIark Lane, wrote me 
their first letter enclosing a small packet of London purple (not 
so named then) and asking me to make a trial of it, offering to 
send one or two casks of the material free of cost. iNIy reph^ 
was returned soon enough, so that on Dec. 18, 1877, they 
wrote again as follows : ' In conformity with your favor of the 
22d October we have done ourselves the pleasure of for- 
warding to your address per steamer Holland to New York, 
thence by express of Messrs. Baldwin Bros, of that city, three 
kegs of the substance for poisoning the Colorado beetle, and 
shall be much obliged by your sending us as early a report as 
you can of the results of the trial experiments you may make 
with it.' 

1 Gotf. A)HK liepf. X. Y. State A<jric. Exp. Sta. 1SS5, 246, 

2 Ibid. 1884, 318. 

r 



66 The Sprayi7ig of Plants. 

" The bill of lading shows that the kegs left New York City 
on Feb. 2, 1878, but it was near the end of the month when 
they reached me at Ames, Iowa. 

" My next letter from Hemingway & Co. bears date of March 
19, 1878, asking as to the arrival of the kegs. The next 
letter from the firm I have temporarily mislaid, but on July 
26, 1878, it wrote as follows : ' We have to thank you for 
your favor of the 4th inst. and are of course pleased to find that 
our expectations are correct as to the poisonous nature of the 
"London purple " to the x^otato beetle. AVe anxiously await 
the result of the further experiments promised in yours, and 
shall in the meantime have prepared some few tons of the 
material ready to be sent over.' 

" On Xov. 28, 1878, it wrote as follows : ' We are exceedingly 
obliged for your favor of the 9th inst. and the Nos. 3 and 4 
of your college gazette i (which came by same mail) containing 
yours and Professor Budd's kind notice of our new poison 
(London purple). Since last we had this pleasure, we have 
been in correspondence with Messrs. Ward & Co., to whom we 
intend sending our first consignment, and which we intend 
shall leave here immediately.' 

"My letter, in which I suggested the name 'London purple,' 

1 "A Cheap and Valuable Poison for the Potato Beetle.— Last winter 
the College received, for trial, a quantity of a material called by the manufacturers, 
'Loudon purple,' and designed to be used for killing the Colorado potato beetle 
(the potato bugs of common parlance). Upon trial it was found to be valuable, 
killing the old as well as the young insects with great certainty. The virtue of Lon- 
don purple lies in the arsenic which it contains, just as in the case of Paris green. 
There are, however, several advantages possessed by the new poison over the old, 
among which are, first, its extreme fineness, permitting it to be mixed with water ; 
second, its adhesiveness ; when once applied it adheres tenaciously to the leaves, — 
this is due, no doubt, to its finely divided condition ; third, its purple color enables 
one alwaj'S to detect its presence on leaves, even when it exists in but very small 
quantities ; this will not only guard against accidents, but at the same time be of 
considerable account in enabling one to always know when it is necessary to make 
another ap])licatiou ; fourth, its cheapness as compared with Paris green ; it will be 
impossible to say just what the cost per pound Avill be, until a considerable quantity 
has been brought into our markets ; it will, however, iji all probabilitj^ not be more 
than one-fourth that charged for Paris green. The London manufacturers are now 
making arrangements for putting into the market a suflicient quantity for use upon 
the crop of beetles in 1S79. They propose to designate some firm in Des Moines to 
take charge of the matter of introducing it. When it becomes available it will be 
well for our potato growers to give London purple the attention it deserves." — The 
College Quarterli/, Iowa Agric. College, Ames, Iowa, Vol. i. No. iii. Sept. 
1878, 49. 



Introduction of London Purple. 67 

AViis ill answer to theirs of March IP, 1878, so it was written 
sometime early in April." 

In another letter, Dr. Bessey has informed me that during a 
visit which one of the Hemingway firm paid him in Iowa, the 
statement was made that the three kegs sent to Iowa were the 
first sent to America ; and the first small packet sent in a letter 
was one of three wliicli were mailed at the same time, the other 
two packets being addressed to two gentlemen in the United 
States. One of these was Professor A. J. Cook, then of Lans- 
ing, Mich. The name of the other was forgotten, for no reply 
had been received from him. Professor Cook's answer had 
been delayed or had proved unsatisfactory, for all the kegs of 
the first shipment went to Iowa, as above stated. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has also been 
active in bringing London purple to the attention of horticul- 
turists. In the annual report of the Department for 1878, page 
1-14, is given a chemical analysis of the poison, and its use 
is suggested as a substitute for Paris green. The first direct 
recommendation that is found in the government reports to 
this effect was made by Riley on page 248 of the same publi- 
cation. He advised the destruction of the juniper web-worm 
by treating the parts infested with either Paris green or London 
purple. The same was also made to apply to the apple coleo- 
phora. Expei'iments to test the value of London purple were 
carried on this year by Riley, and the work was so successful 
that large quantities of the poison were distributed to various 
cotton growers in Georgia, Alabama, and Texas, where it was 
to be used in the destruction of the cotton worm, in 1879. The 
result of these tests was so satisfactory that London purple 
was even more strongly recommended than Paris green. When 
applied in a dry state, the proportions which appeared most 
l)romising to Dr. Riley were one-half pound of the poison to 
eighteen of the diluent. When used with water, one-half pound 
of the powder could be used to advantage in about fifty gal- 
lons of water. During the spring of the same year, 1879, A. R. 
Whitney, of Franklin Grove 111., ''found it to be a perfect an- 
tidote to the canker-worms. 1 ..." 

During this year, Trelease conducted some experiments for 
J. II. Comstock, who at the time was chief of the Division of 

1 Kiley, U. S. Ent. Com. ISSO, Bull. 3, GU, (31. 



68 The Spraying of Plants. 

Entomology, in which London purple was used in comparison 
with several other substances.^ In this test Paris green proved 
the most satisfactory, then arsenious oxide, while London pur- 
ple stood third on the list. The principal objection to the last 
two materials was that they scorched the foliage of the cotton 
plants to which they were applied. The conclusion was also 
reached that it is more economical to apply the powders when 
mixed with water than in the powder form, only about one-half 
as much poison being required by the former method. 

The value of London purple as an insecticide was recognized 
with surprising rapidity. The experiments of Comstock and of 
Riley were widely copied, and although there were some seri- 
ous objections to the use of this arsenite, its cheapness and the 
ease with which it could be applied were greatly in its favor. 
Cook used it successfully in 1879 against the codlin-moth, and 
with such recommendations it soon won public favor. The 
principal objection to its use was the danger of scorching the 
foliage of the plants, and this probably is the main reason why 
it did not entirely supersede Paris green. It is also less uni- 
form in its composition, which renders it of uncertain value. 
Yet it was only about three years after its introduction that 
the value of London purple was generally considered to be 
nearly equal to that of Paris green, and it is so considered 
to-day. 

Sjyraying for the Curcnlio. 

No subject connected with the spraying of plants, with per- 
haps the exception of the best methods of making the kerosene 
emulsion, has been the subject of such iieated controversy as 
the spraying of stone fruits with arsenites to protect them 
from the curculio. The value of the operation seems to have 
been first noted by G. M. Smith, of Berlin, AVis. In 1870 
Riley wrote an article on this practice in which he held it 
up to ridicule,'-^ and the subject was again mentioned by the 
same writer in an article wliich states that Smith recommended 
it "to the Saint Joseph (Michigan) Horticultural Society, and 
from that time on [the poison] has been occasionally suggested 

^Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 18T9, 309. 

2 Third Rept. State Entomologist of 3Iissouri, IS. 



Spraying for the Curculio. 69 

ill the newspapers." 1 Tlie use of the remedy by J. Luther 
Bowers, of llenulon, Va., in 1880, and by William Creed, of 
Kochester, X.Y., in 1884, is also mentioned. In this report 
the statement is made, on page 70, that " Kiley, in an address 
delivered before the ]\Iississippi Valley Horticultural Society, 
in the early spring of 1885, at J^ew Orleans, in giving his 
experience as to the feeding habits of the beetle, urged experi- 
mentation with the arsenicals in this direction as promising 
fair results," but I have been unable to find such an expression 
in the record of the above meeting. In 1885, Forbes, of 
Illinois, applied Paris green for the control of the codlin-moth, 
and at the same time noted the severity of injuries caused by 
the curculio upon the apples. These experiments are reported 
by Howard,- and in one of the conclusions he says : " Treat- 
ment with Paris green had saved something more than two- 
thirds of the apples which would otherwise have been damaged 
by the codlin-moth, and something more than one-half of 
those wdiich would have been sacrificed to the curculio." 

In 1887 the arsenites appear to have been tested for the first 
time in the destruction of the plum curculio by an investigator 
of recognized ability. Cook made some experiments which did 
not, however, form a very firm basis for the drawing of con- 
clusions. Four plum trees were thoroughly sprayed with Paris 
green on May 18, the poison being used at the rate of one 
tablespoonful to six gallons of M'ater. Unfortunately no trees 
of any of the varieties sprayed appear to have been left for 
comparison, and the fruit of different trees was injured by the 
insect to a very unequal extent. The two Wild Goose trees 
dropped all their fruit. A yellow variety was loaded with fruit 
of which only 15 per cent was affected while the fourth tree, 
a purple variety, " had not less than 75 per cent of its fruit 
badly stung." ^ 

During the same year, W. B. Alvvood carried on some limited 
experiments at the Ohio experiment station for the destruction 
of the plum curculio, using a Paris green spray. His conclusion 
was : " I am confident the curculios eat enough to make it pos- 

^Ajin. Rept. U. S. Com. of AgHc. 1888, 69. 2 jua, ISST, 105. 

3 Rept. Mich. Bd. Agric. ISST, 40. See also Ibid. 1886,141, where the same 
writer expresses little hopes for the success of the arsenites in the clestruction of 
the plum curculio ; and Saunders in Rept. Fruit Groieers' Ass^n of Out. 1887, 58. 



70 The Sprayiyig of Plants. 

sible to poison some of them, but the benefit to be derived from 
such is as yet unsettled."! 

In 1888 Weed made the first report of an experiment planned 
upon a large scale, in which the method could be apparently 
well tested. 2 London purple, used at the rate of one-half pound 
to fifty gallons of water, was applied to seventy-five Early Rich- 
mond cherry trees. Three applications were made. As a re- 
sult, "it was found that 14.5 per cent of the unsprayed fruit 
gave evidence of curculio attack, while 3.5 per cent of the 
sprayed fruit w^as injured. There was consequently a percen- 
tage of benefit of 75.8." The same year similar experiments 
were made upon plums and pears, but, as stated in the record 
(Seventh Ann. Rept. Ohio Agric. Exp. Sta. 134-150), the oppor- 
tunities for a satisfactory test were not so good as with the 
cherries, so that although the fruit was saved, less stress was 
laid upon the result.^ 

Professor Herbert Osborn, of Iowa, also tried to solve the 
problem during this year. There was a trifling difference be- 
tween the sprayed and unsprayed plots in favor of tlie former, 
but it seems that two species of insects were at work, so that no 
definite conclusions can be drawn regarding the value of the 
treatment against the plum curculio alone.* 

The experiments made by Professor Cook during 1888 were 
somewhat more extended than those of preceding years, but 
still rather limited. The trees, cherries and plums, v^'ere 
sprayed three times, June 0, 12, and 20, and the results obtained 
appeared to warrant the following conclusions : " From these 
experiments, and those of former years, I conclude that while 
one application will not save our plums and cherries, and pi-e- 
vent apples from being stung, two or three applications may be 
of signal advantage.^ 

In 1889, Cook repeated his former experiments. At the 
close of the work his opinion was decidedly against the appli- 
cation of arsenites. He says : '' All the trees were severely 
attacked and all the plums were lost. . . . The arsenites will 

^ Ajin. Jiepf. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1S8S, 70. This is the lirst published state- 
ment of his work. 

2 Ohio Agric. E-xii. Sta. Bull. 4, second series, 89. 
8 Weed. American KatiD-alifil, 1S91, Jan. 70. 
*Ann. Rept. V. S. Com. of Agric. 1888, 72-75. 
5 Mich. Agric. Exp. Sta. V,vi\\. 39, 9. 



Spi'df/iiir/ for the Curculio. 71 

protect against tlie plimi curculio if tliey can be kept on the 
tree or fruit. But in case of frequent rains, the jarring method 
will not only be cheaper but much more effective." ^ 

Professor C. V. Gillette experimented this year apparently in 
the same orchard formerly used by Osboru. Although the cur- 
culio did but little injury, still "the indicated saving of fruit 
that \vould have been injured in the absence of treatment was 
44: per cent."^ Jn a report of the work, attention was called 
to the fact that reliable results cannot be obtained unless solid 
blocks of trees are treated. 

The work done by Weed is by far the most valuable and 
convincing of the year. A condensed account of his operations 
during 1889 as Avell as 1890 is as follows :^ 

'vin 1889 the cherry experiment was duplicated, the parts of 
the orchard being reversed to eliminate any possible effect upon 
the results that might be due to the situation. In 1888 the 
west half was sprayed, and the east half left as a check ; in 1889 
the east half was sprayed, and the west left as a check. London 
purple was applied three times, in the proportion of one pound 
to 160 gallons of water. At time of ripening, 1000 cherries 
were picked from each of twenty-four trees in each half of the 
orchard — a total of 48,000 cherries — and examined for cur- 
culio injuries. The percentage of injury on the untreated trees 
was 6.17, while on the treated trees it was 1.5. This gives a 
percentage of benefit of 75.6, — just .2 per cent less than in 
1888. Plums sprayed with a combination of London purple 
and the Bordeaux mixture matured a full crop, while unsprayed 
trees a few rods distant lost all their fruit. The record of this 
years' work will be found in the bulletin of the Ohio agricul- 
tural experiment station for September, 1889 (Vol. ii. 133-143). 

" AVhile these experiments were made as complete and satis- 
factory as circumstances would permit, and every essential de- 
tail was inserted in the records, they were open to three objec- 
tions, namely : First, that while the remedy might work in a 
region like central Ohio, where fruit-growing forms only a 
small proportion of the agricultural interests of the inhabitants, 

^ Proc. Tenth fleeting Soc. Prom. Agric. Science, 1S89, 28. Cited by Weed 
in American XaturaliKt, 1891, Jan. 67. 

2 loim Agric. Ed-j^. Sta., 1890, May, liull. 9, 386. 

3 American Katuralist, 1891, Jan. 70-72. 



72 The Spraying of Plants. 

and where the ciirculio, though abundant, is not so overwhehn- 
ingiy present as in a region ahnost exchisively devoted to fruit 
production, it might be impracticable in the latter region ; sec- 
ond, that the plum orchard was not sufficiently large to make a 
test under the conditions of the commercial orchardist ; and third, 
that the cherries upon which some of these experiments were 
conducted ripened before the season of egg deposition of the 
curculio was over. The force of these objections was fully 
appreciated while the experiments were in progress, but the 
work was done in the belief that results of value could be so 
obtained, and with the expectation of giving the method a 
thorough trial, from the standpoint of the commercial orchard- 
ist, if the preliminary tests were sufficiently encouraging. 

" The present season [1890] a plum orchard of 900 bearing 
trees in Ottawa County, Ohio, right in the heart of a great fruit- 
growing region, was selected for the experiment. In the north 
half of it the method of catching the cnrculios by jarring on a 
sort of inverted umbrella momited on wheels was employed, while 
the south half was sprayed four times with pure Paris green 
mixed with water, in the proportion of 4 ounces to 50 gallons, 

" The first application was made May 8, just after the blos- 
soms had fallen from the late-blooming varieties. There was a 
heavy rain the same night, and it rained almost continuously 
until May 15, when there was a short cessation. The second 
spraying was done on that day. The third spraying was made 
May 26, and the fourth and last, June 2. 

" On the jarred portion of the orchard a great many curculios 
were caught, showing that they were present in numbers. A 
careful examination of both parts of the orchard was made on 
June 3. Between one and two per cent of the fruit on the 
sprayed trees had been stung, while about three per cent of 
plums on the jarred trees were injured. No damage to the 
the trees was then perceptible. 

" Early in July the orchard was again examined. Some of 
the sprayed trees showed that the foliage had been damaged by 
the spraying, but the injury was not very serious. Not over three 
per cent of sprayed fruit was stung at that time, while about 
four per cent of that on the jarred trees were injured. But on 
both the fruit was so thick that artificial thinning was neces- 
sary to prevent overbearing. 



Spraying for the Curculio. 73 

" A large crop of fruit was I'ipeiied on both parts of the or- 
chard, and so far as could be judged from one field experiment, 
it showed that spraying is as effective as jarring." i 

The above experiments are the most exhaustive yet made, 
and they seem to indicate that spraying for curculio is prac- 
ticable on a commercial scale. They are all founded upon 
the fact that the curculio does eat, a question which has been 
decided in the affirmative by several entomologists of undoubted 
authority. But it still remains to be determined how ex- 
tensively the beetles feed before the eggs are laid, and if the 
character of the season may not to a certain extent modify 
the results obtained by the use of the arsenites. In New York the 
practice is not regarded as being so efficient as spraying against 
the codlin-moth is, and the older method of jarring the trees 
is still considered to be the safest. S. D. Willard of Geneva, 
N.Y., who grows many plums and is in a position to be well 
informed regarding the practices followed, writes me that " the 
majority of plum growers in this State are jarring their trees 
instead of using any of the arsenical preparations to prevent 
the working of the curculio." He uses the jarring method 
entirely, in his orchards, and in the spring of 1895 apparently 
saved his crop by jarring the trees twice a day, when spraying 
with arsenites utterly failed. 

Professor W. J. Green, of the Ohio experiment station, has 
been ^o kind as to inform me in regard to the attitude of 
the plum growers of that State towards the use of arsenical 
sprays : " I must say that opinions are divided on the subject. 
The majority of those who have tried the method [spraying 
with arsenites] on plum trees which were surrounded with other 
kinds of fruit trees have failed, either wholly or partially. This 
might be expected. . . . On the other hand, those who have 
sprayed orchards, leaving no trees, and doing the work 
thoroughly, have generally been successful in saving the crops. 
William Miller, Gypsum, Ohio, and T. S. Johnson, Port 
Clinton, Ohio, will corroborate this, and I can name others 
near them who have practiced the method several seasons, and 
expect to continue. In my experience the curculio is more easily 
controlled with the arsenites than the appleworm, but only in 

1 This experiment is recorded in Ohio Aijric. Exj). Sta. Bull. S, Vol. iii. Sept. 
1890, 2'25-22S. 



74 The Spraying of Plants. 

orchards where all the trees are sprayed. In practice we use 
Paris green with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury to the 
foliage. "NVe must use the latter to keep the leaves from drop- 
ping prematurely. Some jar the trees occasionally in addition to 
spraying, in order to gather and burn all of the plums which 
are stung. If it were not for the Bordeaux mixture I think 
that only few would spray for the curculio, but as it is I think 
that the majority of orchardists prefer spraying to jarring ! " 

The question is evidently not yei f '^iHy settled, but apparently 
much seems to depend upon the locality, and the time and 
thoroughness with which the applications are made.^ 

Other Arsenites than Paris Green and London Purple. 

Paris purple, another arsenical poison, has been on the 
market to a limited extent since 1882 or 1883. Mr. A. Poirrier, 
president of the St. Denis Dyestuff and Chemical Co. of Paris, 
France, was the introducer of this material. The ^ew York 
agents of the firm, Sykes & Street, 85 Water Street, write me that 
it is the refuse obtained from the manufacture of magenta, or 
violet, or both. The Paris firm has apparently given up the 
manufacture of the product, and the stock in this country is now 
very limited. It is used in the same way as London purple, 
lime being added to prevent injury to foliage, but larger 
amounts of it appear to be required to give satisfactory results. 

English purple poison, as I am informed by the introducer, 
Henry S. Ziegler, 400 X. 3d Street, Philadelphia, Pa., has 
been upon the market only a few years. He states that " the 
name is original with me, and the composition consists of arse- 
nious acid with an aniline base." It seems, therefore, that the 
last three poisons mentioned, London purple, Paris purple, and 
English purple poison, are derived from the same source, 
although there are undoubtedly certain variations in their 
texture and composition. (For analyses see page 123.) Con- M 
siderable quantities of soluble arsenic are present in English 
purple poison, so it should be used with lime to prevent injury 

1 Much information on this subject may be found in the following places : 

Ohio Acji'ic. EoL'p. Sta. Yol. iii. second series, 1890, Bull. S; Ihid. Vol. iv. second » 

series, Bull. 2; 3Iinn. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, Bull. 10, 71; Texas Agric. \ 

Exp. Sta. 1894, Bull. 32, 494 ; Bailey, Annals Ilort. 1SS9, 63. J 



Other Arsontes. 75 

to foliage. The insecticidal action of the poison is not so 
energetic as that of Paris green, Imt if nsed more freely the 
insects will succumb. As yet English purple poison is little 
used. 

White arsenic has long l)een known as an effectual destroyer 
of insect life. In 1818 George Gordon ^ said that small brown 
ants are easily destroyed by mixing with one pound of loaf 
sugar a small portion of arsenic. Grind very fine and put the 
mixture on bits of white cards near the places they frequent. It 
is difficult to say how generally this advice was followed, but that 
the poison was frequently tried for a similar purpose appears 
very probable. Its very energetic poisonous qualities when it was 
taken internally were well known, and these must naturally have 
occurred to the minds of persons desirous of destroying insect 
as well as animal life. Nevertheless, white arsenic was rarely 
recommended as being a suitable poison to apply to the foliage 
of plants, for its action is so caustic that the leaves are exposed 
to nearly as great injury from the remedy as from the insect to 
be overcome. It was used upon potato foliage for the destruc- 
tion of the beetle, but with unsatisfactory results, Paris green 
at the same time proving so much superior that the white 
arsenic was abandoned.^ But an account of the successful use 
of the poison against the canker-worm appeared in 1871.^ John 
Smith, of Des Moines, Iowa, writing to the Western Pomologist, 
says that in 1868 he used arsenic, hellebore, and strychnine 
against the canker-worm. He applied them separately to dif- 
ferent apple trees, using them as follows : 

Arsenic one-half pound dissolved in fifty gallons of water, and 
applied to ten large trees. 

Hellebore two pounds mixed in four gallons of water, and 
applied as above in fifty gallons of water. 

Strychnine one bottle, with an amount of water equal to that 
used with the other materials, and similarly applied. 

In two days the worms on the part treated with the arsenic 
were all dead, and the application of hellebore was also followed 
by good results. Strychnine apparently possessed little value for 

1 Join-. LonOon Hart. Soc. 1S48, Vol. iv. 19. 

2 Saniidors and Reed, Canadian Entomolodini, ISTl, 'Mily, 41. 

3 Smith, Wenfern Pomologint, Vol. ii. ISTl, Ma\', 125. See, also, The Small 
Fruit Recorder, 1871, July 1, 103. 



76 The Spraying of Plants. 

this purpose. In spite of this favorable report the poison was 
not in demand, because of its caustic properties. 

After the Paris green and London purple had become well 
known they were both considered safer insecticides than white 
arsenic, and the first was acknowledged to be the best of the 
three. Riley, however, did not entirely accept this opinion, but 
thought that London purple is not more injurious upon cotton 
foliage than Paris green is.^ Cook was the first to make a care- 
ful study of this point.^ He made applications to the foliage 
of plum, cherry, apple, pear, peach, willow, elm, and maple trees, 
to determine the comparative degree in which the three arsen- 
ites mentioned above are injurious. His first conclusion is as 
follows : " London purple is more injurious to the foliage than 
is Paris green ; and white arsenic — arsenious acid — is more 
harmful tlian is either London purple or Paris green." Later 
experiments have confirmed this result, and the truth of its 
general application is accepted. 

The milk of lime was first used in connection with the arsen- 
ites to overcome their caustic properties, by (iillette, in the fall 
of 1889.3 'The results were so encouraging that extensive ex- 
periments were carried on the following year, and many valu- 
able conclusions were reached in consequence of the careful and 
extended observations made during that season. It w^as plainly 
shown tliat " lime added to London purple or Paris green in 
water greatly lessens the injury that these poisons would other- 
wise do to the foliage." ^ Another interesting result obtained 
in these experiments was that " lime added to a mixture of 
white arsenic in water will greatly increase the injury that this 
poison would otherwise do to foliage. If the arsenic is all in 
solution, the lime will then lessen the injury, as in the case of 
London purple and Paris green." 

The next step in this series of advancements was taken by 
Kilgore.^ During 1890 his investigations were made in lines 
almost identical with those followed by Gillette, and many of 
the latter's conclusions were verified. In addition to these. 



1 Eiley, U. S. Enl. Com. 1S80, Bull. 3. 62. 

^ JUich. Agric. Kt'p. .Sfa. 1889, Aug. Bull. 53. 

3 Iowa Agric. Ea-j). Sta. 1890, Aug. Bull. 10, 410. 

4 Ibid. 419, 420. 

^ N. a Agric. Em-p. Sta. 1891, July, Bull. 77 b, 7. 



White Arsenic. 77 

he also gave directions for the luauufacture of an insecticide, 
in which white arsenic entered as one of the princi[)al ingredi- 
ents. It was made *' by boiling together for one-half hour 
in two to five gallons of water 

White arsenic 1 pound, 

Lime 2 pounds, 

and dilute to required volume, say one hundred gallons. ... It 
is desirable that the lime should be present in the boiling solu- 
tion of white arsenic, since it renders the latter insoluble as fast 
as it goes into solution, thus reducing the volume of water and 
shortening the time for obtaining the arsenite." 

Two other compounds of arsenic have been used for the de- 
struction of insects, the first trial being made upon the Gipsy 
moth, in Massachusetts.^ One of these, the arsenate of soda, 
" has been recommended by various parties as an insecticide," 
but the results of the experiments show that it injures foliage 
before an efficient quantity for the destruction of the cater- 
pillars can be applied. The other, however, the arsenate of lead, 
is promising. It was proposed as an insecticide in 1892, by 
F. C. Moulton, a chemist in the employ of the Gipsy Moth 
Commission. It was first tested against tent caterpillars in 
1893, with the following results : ^ " The smaller proportions, 
as I pound or less to 150 gallons of water, do not kill the cater- 
pillars \_CHslocampa Americami] as quickly as is desirable. . . . 
The larger proportions seem unnecessary and would, of course, 
be rather expensive for general field work, but some such pro- 
portions as 1, 1|, or 2 pounds to 150 gallons of water would 
prove entirely satisfactory so far as we can judge from these 
experiments." When used as strong as 24 pounds in 150 gal- 
lons of water, no injury to apple foliage resulted, which is 
indeed remarkable when the small amount necessary to destroy 
the insects is considered. 

Caustic and Non-poisonous Insecticides. 

Having thus traced the introduction of the various compounds 
of arsenic, and their gradual adoption by agriculturists for the 
destruction of chewing insects, there still remains the consider- 

1 Fernald, Md.s.s. Hatch Agric. E-rp. ,Sta. 1S94, April, Bull. 24, 2 Ibid. 5. 



78 The Spraying of Plants. 

ation of insecticides which destroy the organism, not by enter- 
ing its body with the food, but by penetrating the outer cover- 
ings directly, and causing the death of the insect only after the 
material has come in contact with some vital part. There are 
several materials which possess this power, and some of them 
have long been in use. Strong alkalies, such as potash or soda, 
were among the first substances employed for this purpose. 
Tlie insectidal value of soap is largely due to alkalies which 
have commonly been applied in this form. The intrinsic value 
of all soaps has caused them to be used as the fonndation 
for many mixtures. Quassia wood contains an alkaloid which 
is fatal to insect life, and decoctions of the " chips " have been 
recommended since the early part of this century. Pyrethrum, 
kerosene, and resin can also be added to the list, although 
their value has not been known, in all cases, so long as that 
of the materials mentioned alcove. 

Pyrethrum hrst attracted the attention of Europeans early in 
this century.^ It had long been sold by the people living south 
of the Caucasus Mountains in southeastern Asia, the plant 
being a native of the district. An Armenian named Jumtikoff 
learned that the powder was obtained from the flower heads of 
certain species of pyrethrum, and in 1828 his son began to 
manufacture the powder on a larger scale. It was exported, 
and at present this industry brings large revenues into the 
countries in which it is carried on. The species which furnishes 
the best powder is Pyrethrum r^oseum (properly Chrusanthemum 
cocci neum) ; it is not cultivated in Asia, but the flowers of the 
wild plants are gathered. The Dalmatian powder is produced 
from Pyrethrum (or Chrysanthemimi) cinerarioefolium, a closely 
related species. About 1850, pyrethrum powder was introduced 
into France for the destruction of insects in houses. In 1856 
good seeds were obtained from the Caucasus, and these having 
been planted, a crop of home-grown seed was secured two 
years later. Plants of Pyrethrum. roseum were grown in 
America as an ornamental plant at least as early as 1870 ; 
but the Dalmatian form has been grown for the purpose of 
producing the highly prized powder. The first to engage in 

1 See U. S. Patent Office Rept. Agric. 1S5T, 129 ; Ibid. ISCl, 223; iind Ann. 
Bept. U.S. Com. of Ag'rio. 1881-82, 76. 



Pyrethrwn. 79 

this industry was (t. N. INIilco, a native of Dalmatia, who 
successfully cultivated Pyretlu-um cinerarkefolium near Stock- 
ton, Cal. The powder which he made has been sold under 
the name " Buhach." It is in every respect apparently as 
good as the imported article, and is even superior to the latter in 
regard to strength. It is probably the best form to use in this 
country. Plants of both species were grow^n in AVashington, 
D.C., in 1881, with satisfactory results. In the spring of that 
year Riley distributed seeds of the two forms to growers in 
various parts of the country. In this way the plants have 
become fairly well known, and the use of the pow^der has rapidly 
increased. On account of the cost, it has been used principally 
in dwellings and in greenhouses. It is most frequently applied 
in the dry form, but during the past few years it has given 
good results either when mixed with w^ater, or when the essen- 
tial oil has been applied after being extracted by alcohol ; an 
infusion of the entire flowers is also effective. 

It is difficult to say when kerosene oil began to be valued 
for the destruction of insects. The oil w^as undoubtedly used 
before any records of its insecticidal value were published ; 
and one might suppose, from its nature, that it M'ould possess 
energetic properties of this character. Turpentine mixed with 
earth and w' ater was successfully used to destroy worms on trees 
as early as 1835,^ and it is but a step to pass from this liquid to 
the use of kerosene. The latter was recommended for the de- 
struction of scale on orange trees in 1865,^ and was also 
successfully applied to oleander, sago-palm, acacia, and lemon 
trees. The oil was poured into a saucer and applied by means 
of a feather. In June of the following year, the Gardener's 
MonOdy recommended this oil for destroying all insect life ; but 
in an issue of the next month, the statement was modified by 
saying that the vegetable oils were safer. ^ Many others proba- 
bly had the same experience, for if not applied very carefully, 
much injury to the foliage may result. It has been the pi-actice, 
both in Europe and this country, to apply kerosene with a 
certain amount of w-ater, having one part of oil to twenty-five 

1 The CuUivator, 1S35, 176, cites M. D. Thosse in SilUmaiVs Journal, 

2 Gardener' H Monihln, 1865, Dec. 364. 

3 JUd. 1866, June, 176, and July, 208. 



80 The Spraying of Plants. 

of water, more or less. This was applied by means of a hand 
syringe, and a fairly uniform mixture was obtained by dashing 
the contents of the filled syringe back into the vessel holding 
the liquids. Rapid work was the price of a good mixture. This 
practice is still followed to a certain extent in England, but is 
rapidly giving way to more desirable methods. 

Soap, water, and kerosene can be so thoroughly mixed to- 
gether that a permanent emulsion will be formed. Although 
the product may be a comparatively new one, the idea which 
led to its manufacture is not so recent. As has already 
been said, soap and water formed the basis of many mixtures. 
Records can be found showing that nearly all insecticides, 
especially if they possess much value, have at one time or an- 
other been used in connection with soapy solutions. It is sim- 
ply carrying out the idea that if a certain remedy is effective, 
its value will be increased if another substance also possessing 
value be added to it. Thus we find that a correspondent of 
the Gardener's Monthly says he had used soap water and crysylic 
acid together, first mixing them thoroughly ; and carbolic acid 
was applied in the same manner.^ The insecticidal value of 
kerosene once being known, it was very natural that the oil and 
soap should be used together. The first record that I have 
found of such a mixture appeared in February, 1875. ^ George 
Cruickshank, of Whitinsville, Mass., here says that he had 
been fighting the currant worm since 1866, but at first with 
unsatisfactory results. " In May, 1870, I began using kerosene 
with whale-oil soap, increasing the kerosene until it would kill 
the worm and not injure the foliage of the plant. I used 5 
pounds of whale-oil soap, and 1 wine quart of kerosene to 
25 gallons of soft water to mix. Stir the soap and kero- 
sene together till thoroughly mixed ; add two pails of hot 
water, stir till the soap is dissolved, then add the balance of 
cold w^atoi' and it is ready for use. Apply with a syringe with 
force, in bright sunshine. . . . Where the kerosene and soap 
was used, I had no worms after two years. In 1873 I had a 
barrel of the liquid all mixed, and ready for use by the usual 
time the worm makes his appearance, but could find no worms 
to use it on." In June of the same year a similar note ap- 

1 " T. A." iu G(U'denei'''s Monthly, 1868, Jan. 11. 

2 lUcl. 18T5, Feb. 45. 



KeroH'ne Emulsions. 81 

peaved ; ^ I loiiry l^ird, of Newark, N.J., made a mixture in which 
lie used a little kerosene oil with strong soap-suds. He said 
that " it readily combines and can be applied uniformly with 
a syringe." 

Although it is not definitely stated in the two cases just 
mentioned that emulsions were secured, still there can scarcely 
be any doubt that at least a part of the oil was emulsified. 
>Vho, then, is the originator of the, or a, kerosene emulsion V 
The answer is undoubtedly to be found in the unrecorded work 
of some unknown but intelligent grower of plants. 

Cook was probably the first experimenter to recommend the 
use of a mixture of kerosene oil and soap water. He says : ^ "I 
found it [kerosene] would mix permanently with soap solution 
in 1877 and 1878, and that it would kill many insects if it 
touched them, and best of all would destroy haustellate insects 
like bugs, plant and scale lice. I first recommended this to the 
public in 1878.^ . . . The best substances for such use (killing 
haustellate [sucking] insects) are a weak solution of carbolic 
acid, a strong suds either of wdiale-oil or common soap, and 
tobacco water. I have found that the addition of a half tea- 
cupful of crude petroleum to two gallons of either of the above 
makes them the more eifective. ... I mix one quart soft 
soap, or one-quarter of a pound of hard soap, with one or two 
quarts boiling water ; as soon as the soap is all dissolved, I stir 
in, while all is yet hot, one pint of kerosene oil. This is now 
violently stirred till it is permanently mixed — that is, till 
upon standing the oil will not rise to the top, but will remain 
incorporated with the liquid. . . . When we are ready to use 
tills, stir in enough water to make fifteen pints in all — that is, 
one-fifteenth of the liquid applied would be kerosene oil." 
These formulas, using either the hard or the soft soap, have re- 
ceived the name of the originator, and they are still in common 
use. 

Riley published the following in the annual report of the 
Commissioner of Agriculture for the years 1881-82, 127 : 
" Emulsions with soap-suds and lye had been worked at some 

1 "T. A." ill Gat'dener'x Monfhh/, 1S6S, June, 106. See, also. Country Gen- 
tleman, 1S76, July 6, 422, citiui,'- from The Agriculturist. 
^ Mich. Agric. Exj). Sta. lst»0, March, Bull. 5S, 5. 
3 See Iie2)i. Mich. State Board of Agric. 1878, 434. 



82 The Spraying of Plants. 

years ago by Professor Taylor, the niicroscopist of the Depart- 
ment, and more recently they have been made by several in- 
dependent experimenters in Florida, but particularly by Mr. 
Joseph Voyle,! an intelligent correspondent at Gainsville, who 
uses kerosene, soap, and fir-balsam combined at a high temper- 
ature and produces a permanent paste which he calls ' murvite,' 
readily soluble in water. Recent experiments made at our re- 
quest by Mr. Clifford Richardson, assistant chemist of the 
Department, with ordinary soap, whale-oil soap, and both light 
and heavy oils, also show that 20 parts hard soap, 10 parts 
water, 40 parts kerosene, and 1 part l)alsani, produce the most 
satisfactory results. . . . Mr. Hubbard's experiments would in- 
dicate, however, that for insecticide purposes nothing equals 
the milk emulsions which were first suggested by Professor 
Barnard - during our work on the cotton worm at Selma, Ala., 
in 1880, and though the use of ordinary emulsifying agents, as 
various mucilaginous substances and the phosphates, lactophos- 
phates, and hypophosphates of lime, may facilitate the making 
of kerosene emulsions, we have not yet had them sufficiently 
tested as insecticides, and for the present can recommend noth- 
ing more simple and at the same time more available to the 
average farmer than the permanent milk emulsion as produced 
by ]\Ir. Hubbard.'^ 

During the season 1881-82, Mr. Hubbard was making exper- 
iments for the destruction of the scale insects affecting orange 
trees. He made the milk emulsion only, and of varying 
strengths. The following is the formula recommended at the 
close of the season's work : ^ " Refined kerosene, 2 parts ; fresh, 
or preferably sour, cow's milk, 1 part (percentage of oil 66|). 
Where cow's milk is not easily obtained, ... it may be replaced 
by an equivalent of condensed milk (Eagle brand) diluted with 
water in the proportion 1 to 2. . . . In applications for scale 
insects, the kerosene butter should be diluted with water from 
12-16 times." 

Under date of Sept. 15, 1881, Mr. Hubbard writes to Dr. 
Riley regarding the condition of the work on orange scale then 

1 See U. S. Dept. of Agric. Btv. of Eni. Bull. 1, 19. 

- For further details concerning W. S. Barnard's suggestion of an emulsion of 
milk and kerosene, see The Official Gazette, V. S. Patent Office, Vol. 59, No. 12, 1919. 
3 Ann. Bept. V. S. Com. of Agric. 1881-82, 113, 114. 



Ke7'osene Eimdsions. 83 

in progress at Crescent City, Fla.^ " Experiments with 
Neal's mixture gave, \\\)0\\ the whole, rather disappointing 
results." I have not learned what was the composition of this 
mixture, but it may have been an emulsion of kerosene in soap 
water, for Dr. Xeal did considerable work in this direction. On 
Oct. 10, 1882, he wrote from Archer, Fla., to the chief of the 
Division of Entomology regarding these formulas, only two of 
which it is necessary to mention.- These were also applied for 
the destruction of the cotton worm : 

"1. Four pounds whale-oil soap were dissolved in one gal- 
lon of w^ater with heat ; to this, kerosene was added gradually 
till it was found that one gallon kerosene made a good emul- 
sion, capable of being diluted to one per cent without at once 
disintegrating. 

"2. Four pounds resin soap, common bar or yellow soap, 
were dissolved in one gallon water. One gallon kerosene grad- 
ually added, with constant agitation. The greater the per cent 
of resin in the soap, the better was the emulsion I found it 
made, which would indicate that such a soap for this purpose 
would no doubt be a valuable article in the market." 

On Nov. 28, 1882, Hubbard wrote in detail concerning 
the use of kerosene, and also criticised Xeal's formulas. He 
says : ^ 

" Experiments made in September with kerosene w^ashes on 
purple scale show that the eggs are much more difficult to kill 
than I had supposed. They have been killed by 66 per cent 
kerosene and soap emulsions diluted 1 to 9. . . . I have care- 
fully gone over Dr. Neal's report and have a few comments to 
add to my former communication. 

^' Dr. Neal says ' the greater the percentage of resin in the 
soap the better the emulsion I found it made.' This may be 
true of the emulsion, but when diluted, the resin, or a large part 
of it, sej^arates from the liquid and forms a waxy scum on the 
surface, w^hich clogs the pump and nozzle, and is troublesome 
unless removed. . . . The strongest emulsion nsed by Dr. Neal 
contains 50 per cent of oil and the strongest wash a dilution of 
1 to 9. My experiments with milk emulsion of this strength 
did not in the end prove satisfactory, and I long ago decided to 

1 r. S. Dept. ofAgric. Div. of Ent. 1883, Bull. 1. 10. 

2 Ibid. 32. 3 ii)ia_ 17, 18. 



84 The Spraying of Plants. 

increase the amount of oil in the emulsion. I now use 66 per cent 
emulsion diluted 1 to 9, and these, although sufficiently strong 
for long scale, are not sufficiently penetrating to kill the eggs of 
purple scale. . . . The following are my estimates for a stan- 
dard wash of whale-oil soap and kerosene, emulsion 66 per cent 
oil, diluted to 1 to 9 (one gallon emulsion = 10 gallons wash): 
whale-oil soap, \ pound ; water, 1 gallon ; kerosene, 2 gallons." 

Tn the annual report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 
1884 a formula is published which contains twice as much 
soap as Hubbard's original one, the other ingredients remaining 
the same. This has become most commonly known under the 
name of the Riley-Hubbard formula for the kerosene emulsion, 
and is used to-day unchanged. It is prepared as follows : 

" Kerosene, 2 gallons ; common soap, J pound ; water, 1 gallon. 

" Heat the mixture of soap and water and add it boiling hot 
to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force pump 
and spray nozzle for live to ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, 
forms a cream, which thickens on cooling, and adheres without 
oiliness to the surface of the glass. Dilute with cold water 
before using, to the extent which experience will indicate is 
best." 

The scale insects found upon the orange trees in California 
may be cited as further examples showing that obstacles can be 
overcome if only sufficient attention is directed towards them. 
These insects were a serious pest on the Pacific coast, and they 
are not entirely under control even at the present day, but their 
great numbers in former years aroused the fruit growers to ener- 
getic measures. Many compounds were recommended for the 
treatment of the pests. The preparations were generally in liquid 
form, and may be considered as rather elaborate outgrowths of 
compounds whose value had long been known. The following 
are good examples of these remedies, whose number was almost 
endless : ^ 

1. Forty-six pounds whale-oil soap, 4 gallons coal oil, 100 
gallons water. 

2. Twenty-live pounds brown soap, 6 pounds wood potash, 4 
gallons coal oil, 100 gallons water. 

lEllwuod Cooper, "California Fruit Culture," a report of tlie fifth auuual con- 
vention of California fruit growers. 



Resin Soajys. 85 

3. Ten pounds whale-oil or other soft soap, 2J or 3 pounds 
sulphur, 1 gallon coal oil, 17 gallons water. 

It will be seen that soap or kerosene, or both, formed the 
basis of most of these washes. They were not entirely satis- 
factory, for some reason still unexplained. In 1886, D. W. 
Coquillett and Albert Koebele, were appointed by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture to investigate the trouble, for in the East 
such emulsions were used almost invariably with good results. 

In a review of their work, published in 1887, Dr. Riley makes 
the following statements, which indicate well the character of 
these investigations : ^ 

" Among the different substances thoroughly experimented 
with were caustic potash, caustic soda, hard and soft soaps, 
tobacco soap, whale-oil soap, vinegar, Paris green, resin soaps, 
and compounds, and so on. . . . Mr. Koebele's attention was, 
however, directed mainly to the preparation of resinous soaps 
and compounds on account of their greater cheapness. He suc- 
ceeded in making a number of these mixtures, which, when 
properly diluted, need not cost more than one-half to one cent 
per gallon, and which produce very satisfactory results, killing 
the insects or either penetrating or hardening the Qgg masses 
so as to prevent the hatching of the young. One of the most 
satisfactory methods of making a resin soap is to dissolve 1 
pound of caustic soda in IJ gallons water to produce the \ye ; 
then dissolve 2 pounds resin and 1 pound tallow by moderate 
heat, stirring in gradually during the cooking 1 quart of the 
lye, and then adding water until you have about 22 pints of 
a brown and thick soap- This will make 44 gallons of wash, 
costing less then one-half cent per gallon." 

A few further suggestions were made regarding various 
combinations of the above mixture, and the addition of adhesive 
substances to the washes was strongly advised. But the most 
important part of this address was the emphasis laid upon the 
value of the resin washes, for from this time on they were destined 
to extensive use in the orange district of California. 

1 Address by Professoi- C. Y. Riley before tlie California State Board of Horticul- 
ture, at its semi-annual session at Riverside, Cal., April 12, 18S7, as reported in the 
Pacific Rural Presis, April 23, ISST, cited in Bull. 15 F. S. Dejit. of Agric. Dir. 
of Ent. 16, 17. See also Ann. liept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1SS6, 558, giving details 
of Koebele's work. 



86 The Spraying of Plants. 

Durina" 1887 Koebele tested the value of the addition of 
arsenic acid to kerosene emulsion. In his report to the Ento- 
mologist, dated December, 1887, he says : ^ " In the main I have 
followed your suggestion while here in April last, in preparing 
the kerosene emulsion, viz. to emulsify with resin compound, 
and use the arsenic acid in addition. I am glad that your 
hopes in this wash are verified. In every instance where your 
l^roposed arsenic acid was added, either to emulsified kerosene 
or resin compound, there has been a complete extermination 
of the scales." Although such washes were here favorably 
reported upon, they have not come into general use. 

The next year another valuable contribution was made upon 
this subject, of which the following abstracts are the most 
important : ^ 

"Caustic solutions have the disadvantage of hurting the 
tree, and are not especially adapted to penetrate into the egg- 
sac, which, on account of its peculiar texture, repels ]nost 
liquids. 

"Various soap solutions, some containing kerosene and some 
whale-oil, have proved fair remedies, but cannot in my opinion 
be equaled by the resin solutions, of which we give three 
formulas. The first was tried by Mr. A. Koebele, the second 
by Mr. Alexander Craw, of Los Angeles ; the third has been 
given me by Mr. L. D. Green of Sacramento. From personal 
experiments with them all I am well satisfied with theni: 

" Recipe No. 1. Four pounds resin, 3 pounds sal-soda, water 
to make 36 pints. Dissolve the sal-soda in a few pints of water ; 
when thoroughly dissolved, add the resin. Heat until dissolved, 
and add water finally. Use two quarts of solution to the gallon 
of water. Use at a temperature of about 100° F. 

" Recipe No. 2. One pound caustic soda, 10 pounds resin, 
100 gallons water. Prepare as above. 

" As, perhaps, owing to the nature of the caustic, the leaves 
are sometimes liable to be affected, I should recommend the 
spraying of the tree with pure water liberally (the water will 
free the pores of the leaves) two or three days after the appli- 
cations of the resin solutions. 

1 Ann. Eept. U. 8. Com. of A(jric. 1887, 143-147. 

2 Klee, "A Treatise on the Insect Injuries to Fruit and Fruit Trees of tlie 
State of California," 1888, Oct. 12, 28, 29. 



History of Funf/inldes in America. 87 

" These solutions being cheap, they may be used liberally, 
and two or three treatments a year would, I think, keep the 
trees in fair order. 

"Recipe No. 3. Sixty pounds resin, 60 pounds tallow, 10 
pounds potash, dissolved in 10 gallons water; 10 pounds caustic 
soda (Green ])ank, f)8 per cent). Dissolve the resin and tallow ; 
when dissolved, add caustic water slowly. After mixture is 
made, add 10 gallons of water. Use at the rate of 1 gallon of 
mixture to 10 gallons of water. 

" In the case of the black scale, I have found the addition of 
sulphide of soda at the rate of 1 gallon to 75 of resin solution 
(the strength of the sulphide being 1 pound of concentrated 
lye to 2 pounds of sulphide) beneficial, and I should recommend 
the trial of tliis for icerya." 

D. W. Coquillett, assistant in tlie Division of Entomology, 
continued the work begun by Koebele in regard to the de- 
struction of scale insects, and at the end of the year 1889 the 
following was recommended as "the best solution for use dur- 
ing the latter part of the yeai- " : it was made by combining 
with heat, " resin, 18 pounds ; caustic soda (70 per cent strong), 
5 pounds; fish-oil, 2h pints; water to make 100 gallons." ^ A 
slightly modified formula w^as published the following year ; the 
fish-oil was omitted, and 5 pounds of caustic soda (77 per cent) 
w^ere used with 40 pounds of resin, this being sufficient to make 
50 gallons of the wash.'^ Formulas almost identical to these 
are in use at the present time and are highly valued for the 
destruction of orange-scale insects, but fish-oil is very commonly 
added to the preparations. 



History of the Fungicides. 

This country has been less energetic in the introduction of 
new fungicides, j>i'obably because fungi have always been more 
or less serious here, and growers were accustomed to their 
presence. A special stinmlus appears to be necessary to arouse 
a people to any new line of thought, and if this is not present, 
progress is slow. The American mildews, introduced into 
France, forced the vineyardists in the affected districts to 

1 Ann. liepi. U. S. Com. of Agric. 18S9, 355. 2 Ibid. 1S90, 263. 



88 The Spraying of Flants. 

discover some efficient remedy, and they did so. The appear- 
ance in the Central States of the potato beetle and the canker- 
worm exerted a similar influence on American farmers ; they 
also were forced to overcome the pests, and the result was as 
successful as could have been wished. When each country had 
entered upon the task allotted to it, the next step would natu- 
rally be a mutual exchange of results that might be beneficial to 
the other, and such exchanges have taken place. Americans 
have not been slow to test many of the excellent practices recom- 
mended by French investigators, but when the methods were 
once understood they have been adopted in all parts of the 
land, at least by a few growers, with astonishing rapidity ; and 
so well has the information regarding these remedies been dis- 
seminated that no man now has an excuse for not knowing- 
how to treat the large majority of the troubles which affect the 
plants that he grows. 

Little was known in this country regarding tlie treatment of 
fungous diseases of plants l)y liquid applications previous to 
1885. Saunders and Goff were the pioneers in tlie work. The 
former,! in 1884, suggested the use of three fungicides for the 
treatment of apple scab : Hyposulphite of soda, applied for 
the first time, in proportion of 1 pound to 10 gallons of water : 
sulphide of lime, made by boiling 2 pounds of sulphur and 1 
pound of quicklime in 2 gallons of Avater, stirring frequently 
till of a reddish yellow color ; after settling, the clear liquid is 
poured off: a mixture of sulphur and watei', in the proportion 
of 1 pound to 10 or 15 gallons of water. Tlie same remedies 
were also recommended by Goff for the apple scal3 and leaf- 
blight. During the following year he tested the liyposulphite 
of soda with the result that '' in the s\Tinged i^ortion of the 
tree, the per cent of uninjured fruits was doul)le that in the un- 
syinnged portion, while the percentage of the third quality, or 
much injured fruits, was one-half less. It also appears that all 
of the fruits on the syringed portion were larger in size than 
those on the uiisyringed portion. AVe also noted that tliere 
were many more decayed fruits on the unsyringed portion of 
the tree." 2 These were the first of innumerable experiments 
regarding the treatment of the same diseases. 

1 Canadian IlorticulturUt, 1S84, vii. No. 6, 127. 

2 Ann. Rep. X. Y. State Agric. Exy. Sta. 1SS5, 260. 



Former Treatments of Crrape Diseases. 89 

Colonel Alexander W. Pearson, of Vineland, N.J., summed 
up the situation, regarding vinej^ard diseases, in a comprehen- 
sive article which was published in 1886. i He says : " Years 
ago, while experimenting with sundry chemicals designed in 
their application to prevent or cure ' the rot,' I accidentally 
noticed a vine, one branch of which was trained beneath the 
shelter of a projecting cornice, while the other ran over a 
trellis exposed to the sky. The grapes beneath the cornice 
were sound ; those exposed were rotten." Acting upon this 
hint, Colonel Pearson made a board covering, twenty inches 
wide, over a portion of his trellis, and the following year he 
found that the fruit under the shelter was sound, while that 
which projected beyond was injured as well as all others which 
were unprotected."^ The year following, the boards were re- 
placed by cotton sheeting a yard wide, which was regularly 
used afterwards. Paper bags were also tried, these being tied 
about the fruit. They also afforded excellent protection, but 
their use was rather expensive, so that the main reliance was 
placed upon the cloth coverings, which in addition protected 
the foliage from the downy mildew. 

In 1882, Colonel Pearson selected a block of Concords from 
which he " had the symptoms of infection removed as fast as 
they appeared. All the rotted grapes were picked weekly from 
the clusters, picked up from beneath the trellis, taken away, and 
buried. The leaves, wherever spotted with the phoma [black 
rot], were also gathered." The following year "the vines thus 
cleaned showed an improvement of at least 50 per cent in their 
crop. Plowing all debris under, late in the spring, and then 
leaving the ground undisturbed, also proved beneficial." These 
processes of disinfection were considered as forming the surest 
and most practicable means for the prevention of rot on grapes. 

Vines that were well nourished were supposed to resist disease 
better than their weaker neighbors, the downy mildew in par- 
ticular being influenced by this variation. In other resj^ects 
this fungus was treated with difficulty : " There is no benefit 
from any method of disinfection, which I have tried. Sulphur 

1 Scribner, U. S. Bept. of Agric. Bot. Din. Bull. ii. "Eeport on the Fungous 
Diseases of the Grape Vine," Appendix B. " Eemarks on Grape Rot and Gi-ape Mil- 
dew," 54-63. 

2 This remedy was not new. See Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1S61, 498. 



90 Tlie Spraying of Plants. 

is inefficient, and the bnrial of the vineyard debris and subse- 
qnent non-culture, which are of avail against the phonia, are 
useless here. When atmospheric conditions favor the develop- 
ment of this pest, it spreads like a prairie fire. I have seen the 
foliage on ten thousand vines completely blasted by mildew 
within three days after its appearance. Our only defense 
against peronospora will be in constitutional, prophylactic 
treatment." 

The above review was made by one of the most intelligent 
vineyardists in the country. It shows how comparatively help- 
less grape growers were in controlling fungous diseases, although 
Colonel Pearson himself had obtained good I'esults. In the trial 
of chemicals of which he speaks, many articles nmst have been 
tested, but apparently none proved of value. In 1880, however, 
another experimenter appears to have been more fortunate : ^ 
''A writer in the California Horticulturist speaks of the success 
of the application of sulphate of copper for mildew on rose 
bushes, using one-half ounce to a pail of water." Rut this note 
did not attract any particular attention, in which respect it 
resembles a similar one which appeared in an English journal 
in 1861 (see page 17). 

During 1881 a substitute for Paris green was mentioned in 
the Country Gentleman.- Although its use as an insecticide 
was advised in later years, a similar preparation was also 
thoroughly tested in regard to its fungicidal value. It was 
made by dissolving 

Copperas 1 pound. 

Water ; 4 gallons. 

When dissolved add to this solution 

Slaked lime 1 pound. 

The Americans were thus hovering about the truth, but they 
did not quite discern it. The discovery was made by the French, 
and much of the preliminary work necessary to the develop- 
ment of this new idea was also done by them. 

The first formula for the manufacture of a fungicide that 
was borrowed from the French was for making the material 
which was later known as the Bordeaux mixture. It was pub- 

1 Coimtry Gentleman,. im^, April 22, 262. 2 /^^^, i8S4, July 17, 597. 



Forme)' T reatments of Grape Diseases. 91 

lislied by F. Laiiison-Scribiier, at that time assistant botanist 
in the Department of Agriculture at Washington, in the annual 
report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1885, 
although it actually appeared earlier in articles published by 
the Section of Vegetable Pathology which bear a later date. 
On page Si of this report may be found the following para- 
graph : 

" Many remedies for the disease of the vine due to the 
peronospora have been proposed, but so far the most effectual 
specific known is a solution of lime and sulphate of copper. It 
is made by dissolving 18 pounds of sulphate of copper in about 
22 gallons of water; i in another vessel mix 34 pounds of coarse 
lime with 6 or 7 gallons of water, and to this solution add the 
solution of copper. A bluish paste will be the result. This 
compound, when thoroughly mixed, is brushed over the leaves 
of the vine with a small broom, care being taken not to touch 
the grapes. This remedy, it is asserted, will not only destroy 
the mildew, but will prevent its attacks." This preparation 
was at first known as " the copper mixture of Gironde." 

The following statements, no less interesting than the above, 
may be found on page 81 of the same report : " ^Nlany of the 
diseases of our fruit orchards might be remedied, or at least 
diminished, by raking together and burning the leaves as soon 
as they have fallen. . . . The plan of raking up the leaves and 
burning them has been especially recommended as a means of 
checking the growth of the apple-scab fungus, and the pear- 
tree scab. In respect to the latter disease, it is not confined to 
the leaves and fruit, but extends to the young shoots also. . . . 
If this disease be taken early, say at the time of the formation 
of the conidial or summer spores (the only spores so far known), 
the direct application of some fungicide might prove beneficial. 
Experiments alone will prove the usefulness of this." 

Here, then, are the first indications of a future which could 
scarcely have been prophesied at the time, even by the boldest 
imagination ; we have a hint of a power whose influence was 
destined to bring the growing of plants largely out of the realm 
of chance, so far as fungous diseases are concerned, and with 

1 This amount of water is undoubtedly given as an equivalent of the French 
hectoliter. But the French measure is equivalent to 26.41T gallons of the standard 
United States measures. See Appendix, 



92 The Sprayimi of Plants. 

the help of the knowledge already acquired, to place this art 
upon a footing even more firm than that enjoyed by those occu- 
pations in which the weather and other dispensations of Provi- 
dence have no direct influence. The passage contains the germ 
of an educational movement which stands unparalleled in the 
effect it has had in broadening the horizon of the agriculturist 
of the United States. It has forced him to see that there is 
more in his business than following the rule-of-thumb processes 
so long in vogue. It has emphasized the power of knowledge, 
and it has demonstrated, and is daily impressing the fact upon 
all w^ho take the trouble to see, that it requires more brains 
than brawn to succeed in an occux^ation at which formerly 
even the most ignorant could be at least fairly successful. The 
ignorant are going to the wall, and it is the educated man, the 
" book farmer," who is pushing them along, and who fills their 
places when they are gone. The fittest stand the best chance 
of surviving. 



The Warfare against the various Fungous Diseases. 

The formula for the manufacture of the Bordeaux mixture 
was soon widely copied. The following year, 1886, it was 
published by Hilgard in January,^ by Riley in February,'"^ by 
Colman in May,^ and again by Scribner in the government 
reports.^ 

In Hilgard's report the remark is made that attention was 
called to the mixture at an earlier date in the Pacific Rural 
Press. Xo other fungicide is mentioned, but some remarks 
are made concerning the value and use of the mixture in 
France. Dr. Riley's article is on " The Mildew of the Grape 
Vine " ; it mentions the Bordeaux mixture, and also the use of 
kerosene-milk emulsion, sulphur and lime, and carl)olic acid. 

It was during 1886 that the Section of Vegetable Pathology 
was established as a part of the United States Department of 
Agriculture. F. Lamson-Scribner was appointed its chief, and 
in May there appeared the first publication. Circular Xo. 1, 

1 Calif. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1886, Jan. Bull. 51. 

" Burnl Netv- Yorker, 1886, Feb. 6, 87. 

3 U. S. Deqot. of Agric. Bot. Div. Sec. Veg. Path. 1886, May, Cir. 1. 

* Jhid. Bull. ii. 16; Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1886, 100. 



Treatments for Downy Mildew. 93 

entitled : " Treatment of the Downy Grape Mildew (Perono- 
spora viticola) and the Black Rot {Phoma uvicola)." The five 
remedies mentioned in this circular were all copied from the 
French journals. The directions were in brief as follows : 

" For Peronospora. 

1. " Dissolve in 10 gallons of water 5 pounds of the sulphate 
of copper." This was to be used for soaking the stakes and all 
tying material, and was also to be sprayed upon the foliage, 
using for the purpose any fine spraying apparatus, the cyclone 
nozzle being suggested as the best for the purpose. 

2. "Make a mixture of lime and water, as one ordinarily 
applies whitewash." Apply as above, but repeat after rains. 

3. This was the formula for the " copper mixture of Gironde," 
as given on a preceding page. 

4. " The powder of Podechard." This contained 225 pounds 
of air-slaked lime, 45 pounds of sulphate of copper, 20 pounds of 
flowers of sulphur, oO pounds unleached ashes, and 15 gallons of 
water. 

5. "■ The ordinary milk-kerosene emulsion, with the addition 
of from 2 to 5 ]3er cent of carbolic acid and the same percentage 
of glycerine, and then dilute 1 part of the emulsion in 20 to 50 
parts of water. Spray on the under surface of the leaves by 
means of a cyclone nozzle of small aperture." ^ 

For black rot, the mixture of lime and sulphate of copper 
was particularly recommended, and in addition to this a free 
use of Podechard's powder, upon the ground in the vineyard, 
was advisable. 

Scribner wrote as follows concerning the above circular : 
"Three thousand of these circulars were distributed, and I 
have reason to believe that many made a trial of one or more 
of the remedies proposed, but I regret to say that few responded 
to the request that the results of these trials be reported to the 
Department." 2 A report was received from George ^I. High, 
INIiddle Bass, Ohio, the letter being dated Dec. 28, 1886, in 
which he speaks of having poor success with formula Xo. 2, 

^ This formula liad previously been published by IMley in Rural Neio-Yorker, 
1886, Feb. 6. 

^ Ann. Eept. U. S. Com. o/Agric. ISSG, 100. 



94 The Spraijing of Plants. 

but No. 3 was very promising. He also used the following upon 
sixty Catawba vines : " Dissolve 1 pound of sulphate of copper 
in 2 gallons of water ; in another vessel slake 4 ponnds of lime in 
the same quantity of water; then mix these together thoroughly. 
The advantage was the preservation of the foliage in a healthy 
condition in a marked degree over vines untreated." ^ 

Bush & Son & ]\leissner, of Bushberg, ]Mo., also reported 
their work, saying : " We have tried all the remedies recom- 
mended in your circular and find that designated as No. -] the 
best. We are continuing to apply this mixture of lime with 
dissolved sulphate of copper (not too strong), with confidence 
in its good results."^ Another correspondent stated that he 
used Podechard's powder (No. 4) with marked benefit. 

The second publication of the Section of Vegetable Pathology 
was a ''Report on the Fungous Diseases of the Grape Vine."^ 
It is a bulletin of one hundred and thirty-six pages, and gives 
exhaustive descriptions of the fungi causing the downy mildew 
(Peronospora viticola), the powdery mildew {Uncinula spiralis), 
the black rot (JPhjsalospora BidweUii), anthracnose (Sphaceloma 
Ampelinum), grape leaf blight (Cercospora viticola), and grape 
leaf spot {Plujllosticta Lahruscce). The botanical structure, the 
general appearance, conditions of development, and similar 
points were dwelled upon, so that this may be considered as 
perhaps the most important publication of the section, when 
one considers the influence that it exerted not only upon grape 
growers, but upon horticulturists in general. 

The remedies recommended against the downy mildew were 
mostly those in use by French and Italian vineyardists, viz. 
the mixture of copper sulphate and lime, and the milk of 
lime alone. There is also published a letter from Dr. John 
Strentzel, of Martinez, Cal., dated June 28, 1886, in which 
the following statements are made concerning the use of iron 
and copper sulphates : * "I have been using for years solutions 

^A,m. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 1886, 101. See also Country GenUemav, 
1887, April 28, 340. 

2 Ibid. loc. cit. 

3 This was Bull. ii. of the Section, Bull. i. having been published on a botanical 
subject not related to the work of the Section. 

* Scribner, " Eeport on the Fungous Diseases of the Grape Vine," U. S. Dept. 
of Agric. Sec. Veg. Path. Bull. li. 17. * . x- 



Treatments for Grape Diseases. 95 

of sulphates of copper and iron to destroy parasitic fungi on 
vines and pear trees, also to kill red spider on almonds. . . . 
The mixture I use consists of 2 pounds of sulphate of iron to 1 
gallon of water, dissolved, and add 3 pounds of lime and 
1 pound of sulphur, the lime being slaked in hot salt brine 
to a consistency of thick whitewash." The removal of diseased 
fruit, leaves, and canes is also recommended, in addition to the 
liquid applications. 

The powdery mildew was best treated by the use of a mixture 
recommended by J. F. Allen. ^ It is composed of sulphur and 
lime, and is almost identical with Grison's liquid described on 
page 16. 

Against black rot, it was advised to wash " the vines in early 
spring, before the buds have commenced to swell, with a strong 
solution of the sulphate of iron," but the main reliance was to 
be placed in the bagging of the fruit. 

Anthracnose was to be controlled by the European practice of 
" washing the vines in early spring, before the buds have com- 
menced to expand, wdth a strong solution (.50 per cent) of 
sulphate of iron. . . . When the young shoots have attained 
a length of five or six inches, they receive a good dusting with 
the flowers of sulphur, whether the disease has appeared on 
them or not." 

As regards the other two diseases mentioned in the bulletin, 
no remedies were then known, but it was thought '^'probable 
that the general treatment advocated for the downy mildew 
and anthracnose will have a direct tendency to limit their 
development." 

Three appendices form about two-thirds of this bulletin. 
Appendix A, w^ritten by Erwin F. Smith, gives an account of 
the extent and severity of fungous disease on grapes, and some 
of the more common methods of treatment. The material was 
compiled from the answers received to a circular asking for 
information on these topics. 

Apj)endix B was written by Colonel A. W. Pearson. It is 
an article on " Remarks on Grape Rot and Grape Mildew," 
which has already been quoted in these pages. 

Appendix C is entitled ''The Prevention of Mildew — Re- 
sults of Experiments with Various Fungicides in French and 

1 U. S. Patent Office Rept. Agrie. 1854, 312. 



96 The Spraying of Plants. 

Italian Vineyards in 1885." Sixty-eight pages, or one-half of 
the bulletin, are devoted to this subject, ami it forms a fitting 
close to the matter which precedes. Its contents, coming, as it 
were, directly from the European vineyards, which were suffer- 
ing even more severely than ours, lent a weight to the whole 
publication which greatly increased its value. The subjects 
treated in the various abstracts have already been discussed in 
the preceding chapter of this volume. 

The annual report of the mycological Section i for 1886 con- 
tains much interesting matter. The Section seems to have been 
placed in good working order from the time of its establish- 
ment, and many important descriptions and recommendations 
are contained in this report, a very complete review of the work 
carried on in France and Italy being given. An abstract of 
Millardet's article on the work done during the year mentions 
many of the substances tried in France, the best of which are 
"the copper mixture of Gironde ; David's powder; Tode- 
chard's powder ; mixture of sulphate of copj)er and plaster ; 
cupric steatite (a bluish-white, unctuous powder, composed of 
steatite and sulphate of copper) ; and sulphatine (a secret mix- 
ture of sulphur, lime, sulphate of copi)er, and plaster)." Then 
follows a "table showing results of experiments of Millardet 
and David with mildew remedies in France in 1880." 

A letter from M. G. Foex, of Montpellier, France, contains an 
account of a meeting of the International Congress held in 
Florence, Italy, during October. It says that the copper salts were 
considered most valuable, and the formulas recommended were 
those of the Bordeaux mixture (the copper mixture of Gironde, 
page 27) ; eau celeste, Audoynaud process (page 30) ; and sul- 
phated sulphur. In regard to the last substance the letter says 
that "M. Theophile Skawinski, at Chateau Laujac, in Gironde, 
and M. D. Cavazza, director of the school of viticulture at Alba 
(Piedmont), have used successfully mixtures of pulverized sul- 
phur with 8 to 10 per cent of sulphate of copper finely tritu- 
rated." According to an official report of the meetings held in 
Florence, the conclusions in respect to the remedies for the 
mildew ''were : (1) That gaseous remedies applied against the 
peronospora have not given useful results; (2) that among 
the remedies in the form of powder thus far tried the most effi- 
1 Ann. Jiept. U. S. Com. of Agric, 1886, 95-138. 



The Recommendations of 1886. 97 

cacious are those in which sulphate of copper is used ; (3) that 
the mixture of lime and ashes, and of lime and sulphur, have 
not as yet given results sufficiently satisfactory to enable us to 
recommend their use ; (i) among the liquid remedies, the milk 
of lime j)repared so as to make it convenient for application, 
has proven quite satisfactory ; however, its use from a practical 
and economical standpoint encounters in many places serious 
difficulties ; (5) that the remedies most successful in the results 
obtained are the mixed liquids or solutions containing sulphate 
of copper." 

This portion of the report closes with an article on Ska- 
winski's powTler as a fungicide, giving its history, composition, 
and use. On the pages which follow are described several 
fungi found \\])o\\ the grape and also some occurring upon other 
plants. Among the latter may be found an account of the cel- 
ery leaf-blight which is of interest here on account of a remedy 
which is mentioned for its prevention : " I would hesitate to 
recommend the application of solutions containing the salts of 
copper on this vegetable, for hygienic reasons. A solution of 
penta-sulphuret of potassium, or liver of sulphur, 1 to 2 ounces 
to a gallon of water, sprayed upon the plants at the first appear- 
ance of the blight, may arrest its progress. This preparation 
deserves a trial in this case." The use of this substance was 
probably suggested by the English papers, which at this time 
contained many accounts of its value for the control of certain 
fungous diseases. 

Remedies for the orange-leaf scab are also suggested, three 
of the preparations named being, " a solution of bisulphide of 
potassium, one-half ounce to a gallon of water ; the Grison 
liquid . . . ; to 10 gallons of strong soap-suds add about a 
2>ound of glycerine and one-half pint of carbolic acid." 

Regarding the treatment of potato rot, only suggestions are 
made. A trial of Podechard's powder, and of David's powder, 
are recommended. 

The curing of pear blight is looked upon as an almost 
hopeless task, and unfortunately we are now little nearer the 
solution of the problem than at that time. The report says 
that ''spraying offers little hope of success. . . . An experi- 
ment tried during last season in spraying with a solution of 
hyposulpliite of soda, applied several times during the j)eriod 

H 



98 The Sfraying of Plants. 

of expansion of the buds, gave no evidence of beneficial 
effects." 

Although the Department of Agriculture was taking by far 
the most active part in advancing the cause of the treatment of 
fungous diseases, the work was not entirely confined to it. Early 
in 1886 there is recorded ^ an account of tlie Italian practice 
of sprinkling lime upon grape foliage. The remedy consists 
'' simply of a lime wash made of 5 pounds fresh lime slaked with 
24 gallons of water. The vines are sprinkled abundantly with 
this wash from the middle of May to the middle of August, the 
application being repeated five or six times in all." 

Goff continued his experiments in the use of the hyposul- 
phite of soda, applying it, in 1886, upon apples and pears. His 
work of the preceding year was verified in the case of the 
apple, but the results from pear trees were less striking, only a 
slight difference occurring in favor of the sprayed half. The 
material was also applied to pears for the blight, with entirely 
negative results. ^ 

During the spring of 1886, " B. F. J." wrote an account which, 
at present, appears like a prophecy ; for it has taken scientists 
several years to learn the fact which at that time was not 
known to exist. The writer, after speaking of the use of a 1 per 
cent solution of blue stone, and of a 10 per cent solution with 
lime enough to make a thin paste, for the control of gr.'ipe dis- 
eases, reasons that the copper sulphate solutions should be ap- 
plied to potatoes "threatened with mildew or rot. . . . But if, 
in the event of the appearance of the Colorado beetle, Paris 
green (arsenite of copper) extended in 50 times its bulk of fine, 
ground land plaster be aj^plied to potato vines as often as 
needed to destroy the insects, old and young, it will be worth 
the while to ascertain if mildew makes its appearance in fields 
so treated. It is believed by the writer that little or nothing 
will be seen of mildew or rot under such circumstances, and if, 
after the bugs have disappeared, the Paris green and i^laster are 
continued, the vines will resist to the end."^ 

AVhether the above was founded on experience or not, it does 

1 Countr)/ Gentleman, 1886, Feb. 4, SS. 

2 Ann. Rcpi. N. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sfa. 18S6, 174. 

3 Country Gentleman, 1886, May 27, 405. 



Spraying in 1887. 99 

not alter the fact that, even at this time, Paris green was believed 
to have some value as a fungicide, and this is probably the first 
statement of a fact which was not generally conceded until defi- 
nite experiments made by trained men had established its truth. 
Such are the most important events of the year 1886. The 
main feature of the work was the spreading of information, and 
the recommending of lines of treatment to be followed. Little 
actual work was done. 

The work of 1887 was of the same nature, for the results of 
scarcely an experiment made in tins country were published. 
Each one appeared to wait for someone else to try the reme- 
dies, so that there might be no doubt about the successful issue 
of later experiments. The United States Department of Agri- 
culture apparently had no plantations in which to work, for, 
in the annual report of the chief of the Section of Vegetable 
Pathology, more recommendations appear than do the results 
of actual field tests. The results of the French experiments are 
still freely drawn upon, and they form the basis of the recom- 
mendations. Most of the work done in this country was under 
the direction of the Department of Agriculture, which is deserv- 
ing of praise for thus bearing the brunt of a movement which, 
with characteristic conservatism, has not been immediately 
adopted by the bulk of the agricultural population. 

Circular No. 3 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology appeared 
in April, 1887. Its subject was the "Treatment of the Downy 
Mildew and Black Rot of the Grape." The value of copper 
sulphate was placed above that of all compounds in which 
no copper appeared, and formulas w^ere given for the manufac- 
ture of the following : the simple solution of sulphate of copper, 
1 pound of the salt being dissolved in 25 gallons of water ; eau 
celeste (Audoynaud process) ; copper mixture of Gironde, or 
Bordeaux mixture, 16 pounds sulpliate of copper, 30 pounds of 
lime, 28 gallons of water, this being a more dilute mixture than 
that recommended in 1886; and it is also stated that "some 
have reduced the ingredients to 2 pounds of sulphate of copper, 
and 2 pounds of lime to 22 gallons of water, and have obtained 
good results." Directions are also given for the manufacture 
of David's powder, and of sulphatine, the directions for the 
latter being to "mix 2| pounds of anhydrous sulphate of 



100 The Spraying of Plants. 

copper with 15 pounds of triturated sulphur, and 10 pounds 
of air-slaked lime." 

Circular No. 4 appeared in July ; it was entitled '' Treatment 
of the Potato and Tomato for the Blight and the Rot." Among 
the formulas given, only two require notice. That for the Bor- 
deaux mixture produced a still more dilute preparation. The 
directions were to " dissolve J: pounds of sulpliate of copper in 
16 gallons of water ; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime 
in 6 gallons of water." This was a decided improvement on 
the formula published during the preceding April. Among 
the dry applications is found a " Blight powder " ; this was 
made by mixing " 3 pounds of anhydrous sulphate of copper 
with 97 pounds flowers of sulphur." It has not come into 
general use. 

The annual report of the Section of Vegetable Pathology for 
1887 1 is full of suggestion and encouragement. The white rot 
and the bitter rot of grapes are described, they having been 
identified in this country for the first time. Copper compounds 
are recommended for their treatment. New formulas are intro- 
duced, as the old ones had not given satisfaction in all cases. 
The manufacture of eau celeste is described as follows : 

"In 2 gallons of hot water, dissolve 1 pound sulphate of 
copper ; in another vessel dissolve 2 pounds ordinary carbonate 
of soda; mix the two solutions, and, when all reaction has 
ceased, add 1| pints of liquid ammonia; when desired for use, 
dilute to 22 gallons."^ This preparation has become better 
known under the name " modified eau celeste." 

To prevent injury to the young shoots, the following solution 
is recommended : " Dissolve 1 pound sulphate of copper in a 
gallon of hot water, to this solution add liquid ammonia, a little 
at a time, until all the copper is precipitated ; the liquid is then 
turbid and blue in color. Add 2 or 3 gallons of water, and let 
stand to settle. Then pour off the clear liquid which contains 
sulphate of ammonia — the compound whicli causes the burn- 
ing of the leaves. Then pour upon the precipitate left in the 
vessel just enough licpiid ammonia to dissolve it. . . . When 
required for use dilute to 22 gallons." ^ 

^ Ann. nept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 188T, 32;^-:397. 

'^ Formula of M. Masson, Progr-es Agricoh, 1887, July. 

3 Progres Agrieole et YiUcoIe, 1888, April 29. 



Spraying in 1887. 101 

The last formula of the year for making the Bordeaux mix- 
ture is introduced by a statement that " considerable latitude 
is allowed in quantity of lime and copper sulphate in the Bor- 
deaux mixture, but the amount of the latter ought not to fall 
below 4 per cent. The most recently recommended formula for 
the preparation of this compound is 4 pounds of sulphate of 
copper, 2 pounds lime, 25 gallons water." ^ 

The report also contains a description of the strawberiy- 
leaf blight with directions for treatment. Regarding the lat- 
ter point, the work done in the laboratory show^ed " that these 
conidia will not germinate in very dilute solutions of hyposul- 
phite of soda or sulphate of copper. It is a simple matter to 
apply similar solutions to the plants in the field, where it is only 
reasonable to suppose they will have a like action on the repro- 
ductive bodies in question." The hyposulphite of soda solution 
was made by dissolving 1 pound of the salt in 10 gallons of 
water. One form of copper solution, recommended for the first 
time in America, was thus prepared : " In 1 quart of liquid 
ammonia dissolve 3 ounces of carbonate of copper, then dilute 
to 20 gallons." This was here called the ammoniacal carbonate 
of copper. 

liegarding the treatment of apples for the scab, are the 
following statements : " Experiments already made with the 
sulphate of copper solutions indicate that they will, when prop- 
erly applied, at once check the scab. . . . The following course 
of treatment is suggested : 

"1. In early spring, before the buds have commenced to 
expand, spray the trees thoroughly with a solution of sulphate 
of iron, using 4 pounds of iron sulphate to 4 gallons of water. 

" 2. As soon as the fruit has set, apply the Bordeaux mix- 
ture or one of the modified preparations of eau celeste. 

" 3. If the weather should be such as to favor the develop- 
ment of the scab fungus, a third application should be made 
two or three weeks after the second, using the same materials." 

The chloride of iron or some other fungicide is suggested for 
preventing the rust of beets. The anthracnose of the raspberry 
and the blackberry is supposed to be amenable to treatment as 
well as that of the grape, and the same practice of washing the 

1 Viala and Ferrouillat, "Manuel pratique pour le Traitement des Maladies de la 
Vigne," second edition, 1888, 27. 



102 The Spraying of Plants. 

dormant canes with the sulphate of iron sohition is recom- 
mended. When tlie plants are in leaf, the Bordeaux mixture 
should be substituted for the solution. In treating beans for the 
anthracnose, solutions of the liver of sulphur are most prized, 
as less danger is connected with their use. Treatments of tlie 
following plants for fungous diseases are also recommended, 
the copper compounds being particularly advised : catalpa, for 
leaf spot; rose, for black spot; rose rust, for which the chloride 
of iron is preferred, it having been rejiorted as of valu(» in the 
treatment of a coffee disease; and gooseberry, for mildew. 'J'he 
Grison liquid is also mentioned. 

The work of controlling plant diseases, otlier than that 
planned by the United States Department of Agriculture, was 
conspicuous by its absence. The agricultural journals ofcca- 
sionally copied parts of the government reports, or made recom- 
mendations, but scarcely a record of individual efforts can be 
found. The various State stations already estal)lished were 
also inert, with a single exception. Goff was continuing the 
work he had begun in 1885, and this year, 1887, treated ap]»le 
trees with the hyposulphite of soda, and witli the Audoynaud's 
eau celeste. The former proved as satisfactory as hi preceding 
years. The latter, however, was too strong for tlie foliage, one 
application causing decidedly injurious effects. Tlie fruits on 
portions that were sprayed three times dropped from tli(- trees 
before maturity.^ These experiments may have foi-med the 
basis of the remarks in the report of the Section of Vegetable 
Pathology regardhig the injury caused by eau celeste, for I can 
find no other account of the use of this fungicide during the 
year upon apples. Arthur also reports marked success iii the 
use of the sulphide of potassium in the treatment of gooseberry 
mildew, the solution being used at the rate of one-half ounce 
of the chemical to one gallon of water."^ 

After the establishment of the government experiment sta- 
tions, most of which were organized in 1888, the bulk of the 
work done to advance the methods of controlling plant diseases 
was carried on by the stations and l)y the Department of Agri- 
culture at Washington, the work of the Section of Vegetable 
Pathology being especially thorough. The luiblished reports 

1 Ann. Eep. 2^. Y. State Agric. Exp. Sia. 1«S7, 99-101. 2 Jbid. 848. 



Spraying in 1888 and 1889. 103 

of these experiments have taken the lead in the endeavors to 
overcome fungi affecting cultivated plants, and they are a record 
in which may be found the gradually lengthening list of plant 
diseases which liave succumbed. It is impossible to give the 
details of the enormous amount of the work done each year, 
so only tlie more important contributions will be noted. 

A bulletin of particular value to grape growers was issued by 
the Agricultural Department in 1888. It records the results of 
many experiments made in 1887 in the use of the several for- 
mulas published in Circular No. 3 of the Section of Vegetable 
Pathology. The downy mildew and the black i-ot are the two 
diseases controlled. The Bordeaux mixture proved to be the 
most satisfactory remedy.^ 

The report of the Section of Vegetable Pathology for 1888,2 
Professor B. T. Galloway having been appointed chief of the 
Section in November, contains a long list of diseases which 
were studied and treated. ^Mention is made of various diseases 
of the grape ; the downy mildew of potatoes ; tomato black-rot, 
and a form of l)light; brown rot and pow^dery mildew of cher- 
ries ; leaf blight and cracking of the pear ; rose-leaf spot ; plum 
pockets ; apple rusts ; leaf spot of maples ; a sycamore disease ; 
(iotton wood-leaf rust ; peach yellows ; and notes on celery-leaf 
blight. This )^st well represents the energy which was disj)layed 
in America in combating all fungous diseases as soon as the 
l>roper metliods were supplied. The study of fungi was vigor- 
ously carried on by many investigators, and a firm basis for 
experimental woi-k was thus established. 

Early in 1889 the same department published a bulletin in 
which several plant diseases and the methods of their treatment 
are mentioned.^ Applications of the sulphide of potassium so- 
lution, or of modified eau celeste, were advised for the treatment 
of the apple scab, and the same remedies, or other fungicides 
then known, were named in connection with apple rust and 
bitter rot. The black rot of grapes was successfully treated in 
1888 by Colonel A. W. Pearson, Vineland, N.J., who made 
experiments under the direction of the commissioner of agri- 

* Scribner, U, 8. Depi. Agric. Bot. Div. Bull. 5. 

2 Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. Agrie. 1888, 32.5-404. 

3 Galloway, U. S. Dept. Agric. Bot. Div. Bull. 8, 45-67. 



104 The Spraying of Plants. 

culture. The Bordeaux mixture proved to be most satisfactory, 
and the following formula for its manufacture is given : 

"Dissolve 6 pounds of sulphate of copper in IG gallons of 
water ; in another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime in 6 gallons of 
water." The two liquids were then slowly mixed and the 
preparation was ready for use. This formula is the one which 
at first was most widely recommended. 

The methods of treating the rust of melons consisted in the 
use of a carefully prepared eau celeste, only enough ammonia 
being -idded to precipitate the copper. The liquid was then 
poured off, and ammonia added to the copper sediment remain- 
ing in the bottom of the vessel until all the copper was again 
dissolved. One pound of the sulphate of copper so treated was 
sufficient for twenty-two gallons of water. Hyposulphite of 
soda and also the sulphide of potassium were suggested for the 
prevention of bean anthracnose. 

Bulletin 11 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology gives an 
account of some of the work done in the treatment of plant 
diseases during the year 1889. In addition to the various 
diseases which had already received attention, the following 
are named : leaf blight of the pear and of the quince ; rusts of 
the peach, plum, quince, and blackberry ; leaf blight of the 
strawberry and of the blackberry ; and the rot and the blight of 
tomatoes. In the annual report of the Section ^ additional 
mention is made of the treatment of several apple diseases, 
including the important experiments of Taft, Goff, and Hatch 
on the apple-scab fungus. The account of the treatment of 
nursery stock for the powdery mildew is also interesting. 
Pear stock was treated for the leaf blight, and these experi- 
ments may be considered as being the first directed towards the 
protection of nursery stock. The nurseries of Franklin Davis 
& Co., situated twenty miles north of Washington, were used in 
these experiments. The following year the first applications 
on cherry stocks were made, the disease treated being that 
commonly known as leaf blight. In later years the treatment 
of nursery stock became one of the leading features of the 
work of the Section. 

It was during 1889 that the government experiment stations 
began to report the results of work in the treatment of plant 

1 Ann. Jiept. U. S. Com. Agrie. 1889, 397-432. 



Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides. 105 

diseases. In October, Xeale published ^ an account of work 
done in Delaware vineyards. The Bordeaux mixture was used 
with an estimated saving of $65.25 per acre. Stained fruit 
was cleaned by placing it in wire baskets which were dipped 
in diluted vinegar. The fruit was allowed to remain here a 
few moments, and then dried on wire frames. 

An important article written by Weed appeared the following 
month.2 He conceived the idea of applying insecticides and 
fungicides together, and the statement is made that " a con- 
siderable number of expeiiments with this end in view have 
been carried on during the season with very satisfactory 
results." One of these experiments was designed to control 
the brown rot of stone fruits. A plum orchard was treated 
for this disease as follows : " We sprayed the trees early in 
April (April 10), before the leaves came out, with a simple 
solution of copper sulphate; and twice during May (15th and 
25th), the first with London purple alone, the second with a 
combination of London purple and the Bordeaux mixture, 
which treatment was repeated June 1. No further applica- 
tions were made, except to one tree, which was sprayed with 
the Bordeaux mixture July 16." Fairly satisfactory results 
were obtained from the applications. 

The Bordeaux mixture was also applied to apple trees for the 
prevention of the scab, but the results were decidedly against 
the use of this fungicide for the treatment of the disease, a 
result which, it is scarcely necessary to say, has not been 
verified in late years. The black rot of the grape, and the 
quince-leaf spot, were more successfully controlled by the same 
remedy. 

Maynard tried a combination of Paris green and a solution of 
copper sulphate upon potatoes. The growth of foliage was 
checked, but the blight w^as not so serious upon the treated 
as upon the untreated portions.^ 

At the time that Gillette was experimenting with mixtures 
of the arsenites and lime (see page 76), he also used the Bor- 
deaux mixture in place of pure lime, with such success that 

1 Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1SS9, Boll. C. 

- Ohio Agric. Exp. Sia. second series, Vol. ii. 1889, Bull. 7, 186. See also 
Agricultural Science, Vol. iii. 1889, 263. 

3 Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, Jan. Bull. 7, 12. 



106 The Spraying of Plants. 

the use of the combination rapidly gained favor. One of the 
contusions reached was that " London purple (Paris green and 
white arsenic have not yet been tried) can be nsed at least eight 
or ten times as strong withont injnry to foliage if applied in 
common Bordeaux mixture instead of water." Later experi- 
ments have shown that Paris green can be applied in the same 
manner with greater safety than when pure water is nsed. 

Althougli the smnts of grain are not best treated by spraying, 
still these diseases are sufficiently connected wdth the snbject in 
hand to allow the mention of some work done by Kellerman 
and Swingle. 1 In 1889 the work was mainly verifying the 
methods proposed by Professor Jensen, of Copenhagen, Den- 
mark, for the treatment of the various grain smuts. The 
following year fifty-one methods for treating the stinking smut 
of wheat Avere tried. " Of all the treatments tested, the Jensen, 
or hot-water method, is probably the best for general use, 
although in our experiments it did not prevent all the smut " 
(see Part II. under Oats). 

Halsted published a report in 1889 which proved to be the 
beginning of an important series.^ This first publication con- 
tained notes on diseases of the potato, grape, cranberry, cucum- 
ber, sweet potato, and lilac, those of the cranberry having 
already been mentioned in Bulletin GI: of the station. The 
reader is referred to later reports by the same investigator for 
the descriptions and methods of treatment of a great many dis- 
eases of plants cultivated out of doors, and also of those grown 
under glass. The reports are especially rich in the accounts of 
diseases affecting greenhouse plants, and those commonly grow^n 
by florists. 

During 1890, Maynard continued his w^ork on the combina- 
tions of insecticides and fungicides.^ He used the ammoniacal 
carbonate of copper together wath Paris green. The foliage 
was in all cases seriously injured, and the fungicide appeared to 
lose its value when used in this manner. Later experiments 
have generally agreed with this result, and such a combi- 
nation has not been used in common practice. Kerosene had 

1 Kansas Agrie. Exp. Sta. 1889, Oct. Bull. 8, and 1890, Aug. Bull. 12. 
^ Ann. Eept. K J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1889, 221-239. 
^3fas8. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Jan. Bull. 11, 18. 



Spraying in 1890. 107 

been tried for the destruction of the black knot of plums, but 
injury was liable to be done to the small growths, for the oil 
spread to other places than those on which it had been applied. 
The recommendation is therefore made that the oil be mixed 
with some pigment to form a thin paste, and this is then to be 
spread over the newly forming knots. Very satisfactory results 
had followed the use of the remedy, the knots being destroyed 
without injury to the sound tissues. The applications were 
made with a brush. 

The Agricultural Department at Washington was conducting 
work in the treatment of diseases of the grape, apple, pear, 
quince, raspberry, hollyhock, and cotton. Comparative tests of 
fungicides were also made, and a new one known as mixture 
Xo. 5 was considered as having special merit. "It consists of 
equal parts of ammoniated sulphate of copper [see page 117] and 
carbonate of ammonia thoroughly mixed and put up in air-tight 
tin cans."i It was used at the rate of 12 ounces in 22 gallons 
of water, but this proved injurious to the foliage of cherry, 
peach, blackberry, and young grape shoots. 

Chester, of the Delaware station, made some important 
experiments in the treatment of grape diseases.'^ The fun- 
gicides tested were the " ammoniated carbonate of copper," or 
the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate ; the carbonate of 
copper and the carbonate of ammonia mixture, a compound 
first used by this station, and prepared by mixing together 3 
ounces of carbonate of copper and 1 pound of pulverized car- 
bonate of ammonia, and then dissolving in 2 quarts of hot 
water, after which the solution can be diluted to 50 gallons ; 
the precipitated carbonate of copper ; the Bordeaux mixture ; 
modified eau celeste ; and mixture No. 5, of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. While all the conclusions drawn 
from the work have not been fully substantiated in after years, 
the publication did much to demonstrate the practicability and 
financial success of proper applications of fungicides. The Bor- 
deaux mixture was recommended as being perhaps the best to 
use early in the season, but when danger of staining the fruit 
arose, the use of the carbonate of copper and carbonate of 
ammonia solution, or of the modified eau celeste, was recom- 

1 Galloway, Arm. Bept. IT. S. Com. Agric. 181)0, 402. See also p. 160. 

2 Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, Bull. 10. 



108 The Spraying of Plants. 

mended. The precipitated caribou ate of copper was thought 
to be vahiable as a fungicide, but it has since fallen from 
favor. 

Professor L. R. Jones, of Vermont, began work upon potato 
diseases in 1890, and since that time valuable reports have been 
published by him regarding the various diseases of this crop. 
In the annual report of the station for that year may be found 
a condensed account of the work upon potatoes as well as upon 
the diseases of other plants. ^ 

In Galloway's report for the year^ 1890 is the statement: 
" In treating the disease [leaf blight of pear, cherry, and straw- 
berry] the present season, the best results were obtained from 
the use of the ammoniacal copper carbonate and tlie Bordeaux 
mixture. As far as the efficacy of the tAvo fungicides is con- 
cerned, there is little choice. The ease with which the ammo- 
niacal solution is prepared and applied, however, makes it more 
desirable in the end." These two fungicides were at the time 
generally considered to be the best. 

In 1891, Galloway published an account of the use of Bordeaux 
mixture made of different strengths, and the results obtained 
showed that for grape diseases it was not necessary to use as 
much copper sulphate and lime as the formula given in Circular 
4 of the Section of Vegetable Pathology called for. " There 
was little difference between the plats treated early with full- 
strength and those treated in the same way with the half- 
strength mixture." ^ The " half-strength " was made by using 
one-half the amount of materials called for by what has later 
been termed the "standard" formula mentioned in Circu- 
lar 4, the amount of water used remaining the same. The 
half-strength or "normal" formula was soon very generally 
adopted. 

Goff in 1891 established the fact that Paris green possesses 
marked fungicidal value, especially during dry seasons. * Later 
experiments made by Lodeman have shown that the poison is 

1 Ann. Repi. Vt. Ayric. Exp. Sta. 1S90, 129-144. See also Bull. 24 of the same 
station for more detailed descriptions. 

^Ann. Ee.pt. U. S. Com. Ayrio. 1S90, 393-408. 

3 Ann. Rept. U. 8. Com. Agric. 1891, 367. 

^ Ibid. 364; and Ann. Hept. Wis. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891-92, 264. 



Spraying in 1891. 109 

of value in wet seasons as well ; ^ and it is at present considered 
as possessing more value to the aj^ple grower than any other 
single compound which he has at his command for checking 
fungous and insect enemies. 

It is singular that while our most reliable insecticide, Paris 
green, is found to possess value as a fungicide, the Bordeaux 
mixture, which is probably our best fungicide, should possess 
a marked insecticidal value. In some notes which appeared in 
the Journal of Mycology (Vol. vii. 27), Hatch, of Ithaca, Wis., 
says that in treating potatoes it was noticed that plants sprayed 
with the Bordeaux inixture suffered less from insects than 
those used as checks, and " it would thus appear that where 
the mixture is used for rot and blight it may also be efficient 
as an insecticide." Professor Jones, of Vermont, gave still more 
positive information of the same nature at the Brooklyn meet- 
ing of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, ^ 
although his remarks applied particularly to injuries from the 
flea beetle. Beets were protected in a similar manner. Gallo- 
way writes me as follows regarding the experience of the 
government experimenters: "We also had a striking case a few 
years ago in treating a large vineyard. The leaves on the 
plants of our check plats were all badly eaten by the grape-vine 
fidia, while those adjacent, sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, 
were not touched at all." ^ 

In 1891 Chester made a comparative test of some fungicides 
which at that time seemed to be of value, but which were not 
in general use.^ Applications were made to pear trees, the fol- 
lowing formulas being used for preparing the fungicides : 

C. Copper carljonatc 1 pound. 

Water 25 gallons. 

G. Copper sulphate 8 ounces. 

Soda hyposulphite 1-4 " 

Water 25 gallons. 

1 Cornell Agric. Evp. Sfa. Bull. 4S, 272. 

2 AgHculUiral Science, Vol. viii. 364-367. 

3 See Ann. Eepf. Ky. Agric. Exp. Sia. 1890, 40 (distributed early in 1895), 
for experiments made by Garman on tobacco worms, grasshoppers, and potato 
beetles, in 1889, these being the first of this nature ; also Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 
Bull. 86, 58, for the prevention of insect injuries to apples ; Ann. liejtt- Vt. Agric. 
Exp. Sta. 1894, 12, 81, 95 et seq. 

4 Bel. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1892, BuU. 15, 6, 



110 The Spraying of Plants. 

H. Johnson's mixture : i 

Copper sulphate 8 ounces. 

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound. 

-^,^ter 25 gallons. 

I. Copper carbonate 8 ounces. 

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound. 

Water 25 gallons. 

A. Copper carbonate ^ ounces. 

Ammonia 26° 1 quart. 

Water 25 gallons. 

B. Copper carbonate ' 3 ounces. 

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound. 

Hot water 2 quarts. 

Water to dilute to 25 gallons. 

D. Copper sulphate <> pounds. 

Quicklime -1 

Water 25 gallons. 

E. Copper sulphate 1 pound. 

Sal-soda I4 pounds. 

Ammonia 1 pint. 

Water 25 gallons. 

After two years' trial of the above, tlie formulas D, E, and I 
were shown to be the most effective. D, or the Bordeaux mix- 
ture, exerted no injurious action on tlie foliage nor on the 
fruit ; E, or the modified eau celeste, had but slight action on 
the foliage ; while preparation I had little or no action on foli- 
age or fruit. This really implies that the Bordeaux mixture 
w^as as effective as any fungicide used, and that it proved to be 
the safest as well. The only objection raised to it was the 
difficulty of making the applications. The other preparations 
were either of less fungicidal value, or they injured foliage. 

Since 1892 exhaustive experiments have been conducted by 
the United States Department of Agriculture for the prevention 
of rusts affecting wheat and other cereals. In that year, eleven 
preparations were applied, two being in the form of powder; 
the remainder were liquid, and were sprayed upon the plants or 

1 This fungicide was so called from the tact that Dr. S. W. Johnson first pro- 
posed its use in the Ann. Rept. of the Conn. Agric. Exp. Sia. tS90, 113. It never 
came into general use. 



{^fraying in 1892. Ill 

were applied to the soil. The materials used were the Bordeaux 
mixture, the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, ferrous 
ferrocyanide mixture, copper borate mixture, ferric chloride 
solution, ferrous sulphate solution, cupric ferrocyanide mixture, 
cupric hydroxide mixture, potassium sulphide solution, flowers 
of sulphur, and sulphosteatite. Although these were applied 
in various ways, the results were in no case favorable for en- 
couraging the use of fungicides in controlling such diseases,^ 
and later experiments have, on the whole, verified the results 
then obtained. The same report also contains a list of twenty- 
five different mixtures which were applied to pear nursery stock 
at Geneva, N.Y., the number including various compounds of 
copper, iron, and zinc. The copper compounds proved to be 
the most efficient in preventing leaf blight, and no comjjound 
was found which has proved to be preferable to the Bordeaux 
mixture. 

One of the most important advances of the year 1894 was 
made by Bailey.^ In treating a quince orchard with the 
Bordeaux mixture it was found that the rust (Boestelia 
aurantiaca) ^' was certainly less prevalent in the sprayed por- 
tion of Colonel Bowen's orchard [Medina, N.Y.] than in the 
unsprayed part." 

Many valuable experiments have been made, and many im- 
portant results obtained, which cannot be named in this brief 
account of the ever-widening use of insecticides and fungicides ; 
yet one other disease is of sufficient imjiortance to require 
special mention. The black knot of plums and cherries is con- 
tinually threatening the profitable cultivation of these fruits, 
and in some localities the disease has forced growers to aban- 
don their culture on account of the death of the trees. 

Maynard has recorded ^ an experiment in which certain plum 
trees were sprayed with copper sulphate solution early in the 
season, and later with the Bordeaux mixture, the last treatment 
being made July 29. The conclusion drawn from the experi- 
ment was that "the number of warts was very decidedly less 
where treated with the copper mixture than where untreated, 

1 Galloway, Anyi. Rept. U. S. Com. Agric. 1892, 216 ei seq. Fairchild, Jour, of 
JIi/Gology, Vol. vii. No. 3, 240. 

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S94, Bull. 80, 627. 

3 Mass. Hatch Agric. Exp. Sta. 1891, Bull. 11, 19. 



112 The Spraying of Plants. 

. . . and we believe that the plum wart may be held in check 
by the use of this remedy." This note attracted but little 
attention, and four years later, when the Cornell station pub- 
lished a bulletin i on the same subject, scarcely a person appears 
to have adopted the remedy. The Cornell experiments were 
carried on during two seasons, and they showed conclusively 
that the disease can be treated successfully and profitably by 
the use of the Bordeaux mixture. 



11. In Canada. 

Canada was active in taking advantage of the knowledge 
gained in the United States and in Europe. The experiments 
of Saunders in destroying the potato beetle were made soon 
after the discovery of the value of Paris green (see page 60). 
Through the kindness of Professor Craig, of Ottawa, I have 
been able to collect the following data regarding the early use 
of insecticides and fungicides in the provinces. He writes that 
" as far as I know G. W. Cline, of Winona, Ontario, and J. K. 
McMichael, of Waterford, Ontario, were the pioneers among 
the practical orchardists in the work of applying insecticides." 
In reply to a letter, the last-named gentleman kindly writes as 
follows : " I commenced spraying about the spring of 1883 with 
a small force-pump, using a number of ingredients, as an experi- 
ment to destroy fungi on pear trees. ^ In the spring of 1887, I 
bought a large double-acting force-pump, and sprayed my apple 
and pear trees with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, which 
I first used in 188.5 to destroy fungi, and obtained fairly good 
results. For canker-worm and other insects I used Paris green. 
For a few years I sprayed with the carbonate of copper to 
destroy fungi on the leaves and fruit of apples and pears, but 
recently the sulphate of copper has been applied for the same 
purpose." Since neither Mr. McMichael nor Professor Craig 
know of any grower in Ontario who sprayed any earlier than 
is stated in the above letter, we may conclude that the former 
was the first, or at least one of the first, to make such appli- 
cation in that province. 

1 Lodeman, Cornell Agric. Exp. 8ta. 1894, Bull. 81. 

2 See Ann. Eept. Fruit Groicer-s' Asii'v of Oni. 1SS9, 36. Mention is here 
made of the application of hyposulphite of soda in 186T. 



Spraywii ui Canada. 113 

I am also indebted to Mr. 11. W. Starr, of VV^olfville, Nova 
Scotia, who has taken the pains to write so complete an outline 
of this branch of horticultural work in the Eastern section of 
Canada, that the letter is given below in full : 

" r can scarcely give dates as to when spraying was first 
adopted in this province, as the practice has grown up from 
small beginnings with the fine rose watering-pot and garden- 
syringe, using solutions of whale-oil soap, tobacco, or hellebore 
to destroy the curraut and gooseberry worm, and thrips on the 
rose bushes. These methods were in use by the late Hon. C. K. 
Prescott as early as in the forties at least, and I can remem- 
ber some experiments of his with tobacco and the soap solution 
to drive the curculio from his plums, but this was afterwards 
abandoned for the raalet and sheet. 

'•In 1875, Mr. A. S. Harris, of Port Williauis, who had been 
fighting canker-worms for two years with poor success, got a 
small brass hand-pump with single and double orifice nozzle 
from New York. With this he sprayed his trees, using Paris 
green, 1 teaspoonful to 10 quarts of water. This was so suc- 
cessful that the next year every one who was troubled with 
the canker-worm provided himself with a pump and arsenites. 
Since then the use of the spray has been continuous where 
needed, large, powerful pumps fitted to casks or tanks and 
placed upon wagons being used for the purpose. The first of 
these was gotten up by myself in 1880. I used a conunon brass 
cylinder lift and force pump fitted with suction and delivery 
hose. With this I tried nearly every kind of nozzle made; 
some are good and some are worthless. The Vermorei as it 
is now made is, I think, the best for all purposes. 

" During the past four years spraying has assumed a much 
more important place in our fruit industry than formerly. By 
using the Bordeaux mixture and other fungicides with Paris 
green, and spraying early and frequently, we find that we can 
keep in check the black scab on the apple and pear, and the 
black knot and rot of the plum, as well as destroy the insect 
pests that seem to have been increasing proportionately as fast 
as the fruit trees." 

Some of the first Canadian publications regarding the use of 
fungicides appeared in 1888. i Then appeared formulas for 

^ Ann. liept. Fruit Growers' Ass'n, ISSS, 105, 15'.^ 



114 The Spraying of Plants. 

making the eaii celeste and the original Bordeaux mixture as 
first prepared in this country. The latter was given by Dr. 
Riley, while the former was copied from one of the United 
States government reports. 

In the annual report of the Canadian Experimental Farms 
for 1890, there is an account of experiments made by Professor 
Craig for the control of the apple-scab fungus. The copper 
compounds were here used, and he writes me that "the first 
work done in Canada on this line was in 1890, under my direc- 
tion, at Abbotsford, Province of Quebec. ... It is safe to say 
that the Experimental Farm system has led the work in the 
practical application of fungicides in Canada. This year 
[1891] quite a large proportion of our most progressive fruit 
growers are using Bordeaux mixture in the Hamilton and 
Grimsby districts of Ontario, the Island of jNIontreal, the east- 
ern townships of Qnebec, and the Annapolis valley of Nova 
Scotia. In British Columbia, where insects are more injurious 
thus far than fungous diseases, spraying for the destruction of 
those foes is more generally practiced than for the prevention 
of fungous diseases." 

The following year a bulletin ^ appeared in which were pub- 
lished methods for treating the apple-scab fungus, the downy 
mildew of the grape, gooseberry mildew, and there were also 
given directions for making the carbonate of copper, the copper 
sulphate solution, the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, and the 
sulphide of potassium solution. This bulletin was soon fol- 
lowed by another ^ report from the same author, in which were 
mentioned combinations of the ammoniacal copper carbonate 
with Paris green, and the copper carbonate in suspension and 
Paris green. 

Early in 1891 Fletcher published a bulletin ^ in which were 
mentioned a great many injurious insects, and information was 
given regarding the preparation and use of various insecticides. 
The annual report of the stations for 1891 also contains matter 
of a similar nature, and thus Canada took her place in the list 
of those countries engaged in the task of overcoming the in- 
numerable parasites of cultivated plants. 

1 Craig, Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1S91, Bull. 10. 

2 Ann. Rept. Exp. Farms, 1891, 144-148. 

3 Canada Cent. Exp. Farm, 1891, Bull. 2. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE MATERIALS AND FORMULAS USED IN SPRAYING. 

No attempt has been made to render the following list of 
materials and formulas complete. Such a record would require 
many more pages than can here be devoted to the subject, and 
in the end the result would be of little value, since the majority 
of the substances named would be such as have been found to 
possess no real worth and have in consequence been discarded. 
But many of the materials formerly recommended did possess 
merit, and the principal reason for their abandonment has been 
that other and more effective substances have been brought 
forward, with the natural result that the first was displaced by 
the newcomer. Such formulas are frequently interesting as 
showing the steps wdiich have been taken in the development 
of preparations now recognized as the best, and they may also 
assist in doing away wdth the idea that a fungicide or insecticide 
must be made in accordance with a certain definite formula iri 
order to be effective. Nearly all the following directions wdll 
bear considerable modification, and while it is highly desirable 
that the rules be followTcI as closely as possible, since they have 
been formulated after much experience, minor changes may be 
made with comparative safety, and good results will still follow\ 
The cost of the more important substances is given ; the first 
figure refers to the w^holesale price, while the second one gen- 
erally refers to the price w^hen the article is bought at retail. 

Aceto-Arsenite of Copper. See Paris Green, page 121. 

Alcohol. — A 30 per cent solution of alcohol w hen applied 
in the form of a spray is useful in destroying aphis in green- 
houses and in dwellings where the use of other methods is not 
advisable. See also Pyrethrum. 

115 



116 The Sijraying of Plants. 

Alum and Pykethrum. — 

Alum 2 ounces. 

Pyretlirum 3 large tablespoonfuls. 

Water 10 gallons. 

First dissolve the alum, after whicli the powder may be 
added. This mixture has been recommended as possessing 
special value in destroying cabbage worms. The applications 
are made by means of a watering-can or sprayer when the 
caterpillars are first seen. 

Ammonia ; Aqua Ammonia ; Hartshorn ; Volatile Al- 
kali; NH3, THE Gas; NH^HO, dissolved in Water. — 
Although ammonia alone possesses no practical value as an in- 
secticide or as a fungicide, it is so frequently used in the prepa- 
ration of the latter that it has interest in this connection. Am- 
monia is the term popularly used to denote a solution of the 
gas in water. It is a clear, colorless liquid, lighter than w^ater, 
and possessing an overpowering, pungent odor. It has a strong 
alkaliue reaction, and is a solvent of probably all the copper 
compounds used in spraying. It is for this reason that the 
article is of such importance in the preparation of certain 
fungicides. Commercial ammonia varies greatly in strength, 
but there are two methods of indicating its degree of concen- 
tration. The older method is the one inaugurated by Beaiime. 
He used an instrument called a hydrometer, which showed the 
specific gravity of liquids in accordance to an arbitrary scale 
invented by himself. The following five items have been 
selected from his table for testing liquids lighter than water. 

In the first column are degrees taken from his scale ; the 
second shows the specific gravity (G.) of the liquid as compared 
with water; the third shows the per cent of the weight of 
ammonia gas (% Wt.) as found in the liquids which register 
the indicated degrees upon the scale. The figures in the second 
and third columns form the standards of measurement now 
used by most chemists : 

Beaume', 16° indicates .960 G. or 9.8 % Wt. 

20° " .936 " " 16.6 " 
" 22° " .924 " ''204 " 

24° " .913 " " 24. 

" 26° " .901 " " 28.6 " 



Materials and Formulas. 117 

The 26° Beauine ammonia is the strong ammonia of com- 
merce, and in tlie end it is the cheapest form to buy. The 
liquid loses its strength very rapidly unless it is kept in 
tightly closed vessels, bottles having glass stoppers being among 
the best. It must be handled with extreme care, for the fames 
are so overpowering that serious consequences may result unless 
the operator has at all times fresh air to breathe. Strong- 
ammonia is readily diluted with water to any desired extent. 
Cost of 22° Beaume seven to twT.nty cents per pound. 

Ammoxiated Copper Sulphate. — According to the " United 
States Pharmacopceia " of 1870, this substance may be prepared 
as follows : " Take of sulphate of copper half a Troy ounce ; car- 
bonate of ammonium 360 grains. Rub them together in a glass 
mortar until effervescence ceases. Then wrap the ammoniated 
copper in bibulous paper, dry it with a gentle heat, and keep it 
in a v/ell stoppered bottle." The sixteenth edition of the ' ' United 
States Dispensary," 1877, contains the cliemical reactions which 
take place, and very complete information. When the prepara- 
tion is exposed to the air it is said to part with the ammonia, 
resulting in the formation of carbonate of copper and ammonium 
sulphate. It has been used by the United States Department of 
Agriculture in a preparation knowai as mixture ISTo. 5. 

Analyses of various substances are here inserted together 
for sake of convenience of comparison (page 118). The table 
is taken from the Massachusetts State Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, report for 1893, page 378. 

Arsenic ; Arsenious Acid ; Arsenious Anhydride ; 
White Arsenic; White Oxide of Arsenic; Arsenic Tri- 
oxiDE ; As^Og. — The element arsenic stands midway between 
the metals and the non-metals. When pure it is a solid, having 
a metallic lustre and a steel-gray color. It is but little used, 
the compound commonly sold as arsenic being arsenic trioxide. 
This is a white crystalline powder, which is gritty like sand. 
It is soluble in cold water to the extent of 1 part in 100 ; boiling- 
water, however, dissolves 1 part in about 10 of water. 

A solution of white arsenic has a caustic action upon foliage 
if a sufficient amount of the poison is present. Danberry 
records ^ an experiment in w^hich one hundred square feet of 
young barley was watered with a solution of arsenious acid, 

^Joiu\ Chem. Soc. of London, 1862, Vol. xiv. 225. 



118 



The Spraying of Plants. 



■J9;:>BT^ sjqniosui 






opixQ ranissi3;oj 



•apiXQ raiipiuQ 



OOOOOOOOi 



00 CO tH 

CO c^ o 
th o d 

. lO CO 

• «o to 



-t -rH 



•anuoiqo 



•ppY ounqd[ng 



•.inqdliig 



CO 






5S 



•j{anoa9j\r 



•9ni:jooij>i 



•ppy oi^aoy 



CO CO CO CO CO CO o 



■epixQ .laddo^ 



'appcQ snoiaasjy 



•9.11^8101^ 



50 O CC O to to iO 1 



T-l T-l r-l iH r-l T-( r-( 1-1 T-l ©1 »0 






MO«s 



PQ 



- op 
g c fl « d a a d S f^ . 

tx) bo be be tc tc i£ bcj3 -d S 

.2 .2 .2 .22 * '^ "^ '^ "^5 S ? 
'? '-' 'C "S 'S 'E 'S 'S ,? ^ i" 

PL, Ph Ph Ph flH PUi pu Ph - - - 



t^ N 

® S 
O ti' 



S^ SL g ? a a 3 s;: 
1^ o ?> ^ cr' c^ W 



^ ^> b ;< 



O « o.i.S.S^.XcJ 



a ^ 
W.2 





o 


_j- 


^" 


^^ 


"^ 


^^ 


a 


OJ 


<» -o 


ft 


a 


»3 


o 


o 


o 


o 


coti 
eboi 
eboi 


o 




t^H 




c o o o 


^ 


"oJ 


'sj 






i 




HHHH 


3 


S 


■*1 


: 



Materials and Formulas. 119 

made by dissolving 2 ounces in 10 gallons of water. After 
six days the crop looked blighted, but the plants eventually 
recovered. JNIost plants are seriously injured when not more 
tlian one-fourth the above amount is used, and the solution for 
this reason requires dilution to such an extent that its value as 
an insecticide is largely destroyed. 

Arsenious acid may also be the cause of the death of a plant 
if applied in solution at the roots. Jager^ cites many cases in 
which different plants were seriously injured or killed in this 
manner, the action of the poison being to cause the entire plant 
to wilt and finally to die. In one experiment, some young oat 
plants were watered with a solution containing 1 part of arsenic 
in 480 of water. The application was repeated a week later, 
and two weeks from the beginning of the work most of the 
plants were wilted to the ground, but some still remained fresh 
and continued to grow.^ Cuttings also absorb arsenic with the 
same result as when the poison enters through the roots, for a 
chemical examination showed arsenic to be present in the 
tissues. 

In view of the above, arsenious acid or white arsenic cannot 
be recommended as an insecticide. When combined with other 
substances, however, it can be used with safety. Kilgore pub- 
lished the following formula for combining arsenic and lime :^ 
" A very cheap insecticide, having the same insecticidal proper- 
ties as London purple, can be easily made by boiling together 
for one-half hour in 2 to .5 gallons of water 

White arsenic (commercial) 1 pound, 

Lime [unslaked] 2 pounds, 

and dilute to required volume, say 100 gallons. ... It is desir- 
able that the lime should be present in the boiling solution of 
white arsenic since it renders the latter insoluble as fast as it 
goes into solution, thus reducing the volume of water, and 
shortening the time for obtaining the arsenite. When the 
white arsenic is dissolved alone, a larger volume of water and 
more time are required. When lime is added the precipitation 

^ Dr. Georg v. Jtiger, " ITeber die Wirkungen des Arseniks auf Pflanzen." Stutt- 
gart, 1864. 
^ Ibid. 8, 9. 
8 J^. a Agric. Exp. Sia. 1891, July, Bull. 77 b, 7. 



120 The Spraying of Plants. 

goes on slowly, requiring more than twenty-four hours to reach 
completion." This precipitate is the arsenite of lime, which is 
the active principle of London purple. 

In 1875 McMurtrie, then the chemist at the Agricultural 
Department in Washington, conducted some experiments from 
which he drew the following conclusion : " Plants have not the 
power to absorb and assimilate from the soil compounds of 
arsenic, and that though arsenical compounds exert an in- 
jurious influence upon vegetation, yet this is without effect 
until the quantity present reaches for Paris green about 900 
pounds per acre ; for arsenite of potassa about 400 pounds per 
acre; f or arseniate of potassa about 150 pounds per acre." ^ 

Arsenate of Lead; Gypsine; Pb3(As04)2- — Arsenate of 
lead may be made by placing "11 ounces of acetate of lead and 
4 ounces of arsenate of soda into a hogshead containing 150 
gallons of water. These substances quickly dissolve and form 
arsenate of lead, a fine white powder which remains in suspen- 
sion in water." 2 If it is desired to make any variations in the 
above, the poison can be prepared by using 29.93 per cent by 
weight of arsenate of soda, and 70.07 of acetate of lead. These 
may be dissolved separately, and when united the arsenate of 
lead will be precipitated. This compound is much lighter than 
Paris green and can be used with greater freedom, as it does 
not injure foliage. The conclusions of Fernald in regard to 
the amounts to use are that "some such proportions as 1, 1|, 
or 2 pounds to 150 gallons of water would prove entirely satis- 
factory," 3 and potato beetles were killed when but f of a pound 
was used. At the Cornell Station this poison proved unsatis- 
factory in the destruction of canker-worms ^ and of tent-cater- 
pillars in 1895. 

Arsenate of Soda; NAaHAsO^. — This material has also 
been tried by Fernald, but it injured foliage and was not so 
effectual in destroying insects as the other forms commonly 
recommended. Its use for this purpose cannot be advised.^ 

Arsenite of Copper ; Scheele's Green ; CuHAsOo, or 

1 Ann. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agrlc. 1S75, 147. 

2 Fernald, 3/rt,s%«. Ilafcli Agrie. Exjt. SUt. 1S94, April, Bull. 24 6 

3 Ihid. 5. 

^Cornell Ag vie. Exp. Sta.\%'dh,Bn\\. -[01. 

5 Mass. Hatch Agrie. Exp. Sia. lSt)4, April, Bull. 24, 8, 9. 



Mater'ials and Formulas. 121 

Cu3(As03)2. — "This compound is to be had by adding an 
aqueous solution of arsenic trioxide to an ammonia-copper sul- 
phate solution ; this latter solution is prepared by adding am- 
monia to a solution of copper sulphate until the j)i'ecipitate 
which is at first formed dissolves." ^ During 1895, the writer 
tested this arsenite, and the results showed that its value in 
destroying the codlin-moth is far inferior to that of Paris 
green, while its fungicidal action is probably greater than that 
of any other compound of arsenic and copper. The United 
States Department of Agriculture conducted a similar work 
during the year, but a full account has not yet been published. 

PiU'is Green; Scliweinfurth's Green; Emerald Green; Mitis 
Green; French Green ; Aceto-arsenlte of Copper ; (CuOAs203)3 — 
Cu(C2H302)2- — Paris green may be prepared by making a boil- 
ing solution of white arsenic in one vessel, and a similar one 
of acetate of copper (verdigris) in another. These two boiling 
solutions are then combined, and Paris green is precipitated. 
It appears as a more or less fine powder, having a beautiful 
clear green color. It is practically insoluble in water, but dis- 
solves readily in ammonia. It is for this reason that ammonia 
forms such an excellent test for determining the purity of the 
powder ; all sediment which the ammonia will not dissolve may 
be considered as foreign matter. 

Ehrmann has given the composition of pure Paris green to 
be as follows : ^ 

Copper oxide 31.29 

Arsenious acid 58.65 

Acetic acid lO.OG 

Most samples, even of the purest grades, show some variations 
from the above. 

Since very nearly all the arsenic found in Paris green is prac- 
tically insoluble in water, it is true that this poison is the safest 
insecticide noAV in general use. It will, nevertheless, injure 
foliage, sometimes to a serious extent, if several applications 
are made. The foliage of the stone fruits is particularly sus- 
ceptible to this action, although even the apple will suffer. The 

1 Shepard, «' Elements of Chemistry," 1885, 245. 

2 Cited by Ross, Ala. Agric. Exp. ^Sta. 1894, August, Bull. 58, 5. 



122 The Spraying of Plants. 

danger may be avoided by adding lime to the liquid in which 
the poison is held, using equal parts of lime and arsenite, as is 
also done with London purple. Paris green is heavier than the 
latter, and must be more frequently stirred when in water. 

Paris green possesses some value as a fungicide. This is 
probably due to the presence of the copper. Although the 
fungicidal value of the poison is, perhaps, only one-half as great 
as that of the Bordeaux mixture, its protecting influence is 
fairly strong, as has been shown by several investigators. It is 
without doubt the most valuable single remedy that can be 
used in an orchard, since it checks most insect injuries, and 
reduces, to a marked degree, the losses occasioned by fungous 
diseases, although it cannot be considered as a very energetic 
fungicide. 

Since Paris green contains less soluble arsenic, it can be used 
with greater freedom than London purple, as there is less danger 
of injuring the foliage. When the poison first came into use, 
more of it was applied than was necessary for the destruction of 
the insects. The amount has been reduced so that, at present, 
the following may be accepted as a safe and effective mixture 
for plants when only one or two applications are to be made. 
The fine-grained powder is to be preferred, as it does not settle 
so rapidly, and is more evenly distributed : 

Paris green 1 pound. 

Water 150-300 gallons. 

The more concentrated mixtures should l)e used only upon 
plants which are not easily injured, as the eggplant and the 
potato; in other cases, when the insects are destroyed with 
difficulty, lime should be added, using an amount equal in bulk 
to that of the poison. It is always safer to make tliis addition, 
even when the mixture is more dilute ; the amount of lime used 
is so small that no clogging of the machinery will result, and 
there is no danger of injuring the plants. 

The action of lime in overcoming the caustic properties of the 
compounds of arsenic has suggested the use of the Bordeaux 
mixture in combination with these poisons, but especially with, 
London purple and with Paris green. These mixtures have 
now been in use for several years, and they have, almost with- 
out exception, given excellent results. The value neither of the 



Materials and Formulas. 123 

insecticide nor of the fungicide appears to be weakened,- and 
the presence of the lime in the Bordeaux niixtnre entirely pre- 
vents any injury to foliage. The arsenites are mixed with 
the fungicide in the same proportions as if clear water were 
the diluent. Other combinations than the above are not so 
satisfactory. 1 

When nsed dry, both London purple and Paris green may be 
applied pure, provided a nniforni and economical application 
can be made. It is, however, customary to mix the poisons 
with flour, leached ashes, plaster, air-slaked lime, soot, and 
similar substances, using 1 part of the insecticide to from 5 to 50 
of the diluent, the required amount of the latter being less 
wdien the two are thoroughly mixed and carefully applied. 
But since the introduction of improved machinery, the liquid 
applications are generally preferred. The price of Paris green 
varies from eighteen to thirty cents per pound. 

Arsenite of Lime ; CAg (AsOg) ^ (Normal). — An arsenite of 
lime is formed when arsenioiis acid and lime are boiled together, 
as already described under Aksexic. About three-fourths of 
London purple is made np of this material, according to analyses 
made at the Cornell experiment station.^ The arsenite of 
lime is insoluble in water, and is not injurious to foliage. As 
an insecticide it is probably not surpassed by any componnd of 
arsenic; it is advisable to mix some coloring matter with the 
poison to lessen the danger of mistaking it for some other 
article. 

English Purple Poison. — An analysis of this preparation 
shows the total amount of arsenic trioxide to be 36.75 per cent 
of the material. Of this amount, 14.58 per cent is soluble in 
water. This insecticide has as yet been tested only to a limited 
extent, but my own experience with it has been that the fol- 
lowing proportions may be used with success against the potato 
beetle, an insect which is destroyed with greater difficulty than 
many other pests : 

English purple poison 1 ounce. 

Lime 1 " 

Water 4 gallons. 

1 See CornfiJl Agric. L'xp. Ski. 1S91, Dec. Bull. 35, for accounts of experiments 
in combining various fungicides and insecticides. 

2 Cornell Agric. Ea-p. Sia. 1S90, July, Bull. 18, 36. 



124 The Spr ailing of Plants. 

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in mixing the 
poison with water. Much of it floats upon the surface in the 
form of bubbles, and it is almost impossible to wet all the poi- 
son. When once thoroughly wet, it remains in suspension 
fairly well. Tlie color of the mixture is darker than that of 
London purple. 

London Purple. — The chemical composition of London pur- 
ple is variable. Two analyses published by Bailey i are as fol- 
lows : "1. Arsenic, 43.65 per cent; rose aniline, 12.46; lime, 
21.82; insoluble residue, 14.57; iron oxide, 1.16; and water, 
2.27. 2. Arsenic, 55.35 per cent; lime, 26.23; sulphuric acid, 
.22; carbonic acid, .27; moisture, 5.29." Some samples show 
that fully one-half of the arsenic is in a soluble condition, and 
this easily explains the scorching of the foliage to which Lon- 
don purple has been applied. In the manufacture of certain 
dyes this substance appears as a waste product, which accounts 
for the above variations. The finely divided condition of the 
powder is one strong point in its favor. It remains sus- 
pended in water a long time, and the liquids with which it is 
mixed require comparatively little agitation. The value of Lon- 
don purple does not rest in its coloring matter, for this can be 
removed and the arsenite still be as effective as before. In 
order to check the caustic action of the poison, it is well to add 
an amount of lime fully equaling in weiglit that of the drug ; 
the dissolved arsenic will then be converted into an insoluble 
arsenite of lime. 

The following formula indicates the manner of its use : 

London purple 1 pound. 

Lime 1 " 

Water 200-300 gallons. 

When less water is used, the amounts of the other ingredi- 
ents should be reduced in proportion. In making applications, 
the liquid should be stirred sufficiently to prevent the solid par- 
ticles from settling to the bottom. 

If London purple is used without lime, foliage is commonly 
scorched when 1 pound in 200 gallons of water is used, but more 
dilute mixtures will prove more satisfactory. This arsenite 
should cost from six to fifteen cents per pound. 

1 fforticulturisfs Bule-Book, third edition, 2. 



3faterials and Formulas. 125 

Pai'is Purple. — This substance closely resembles English 
purple poison, being of a very deep maroon color. Chemical 
analysis shows oi.l per cent of arsenic trioxide, 40.7 per cent of 
this amount being soluble in water. It may be used in the 
same manner as recommended for English purple poison, and 
it is also defective from the fact that it does not mix readily 
with water. 

Benzine. — Benzine has been used in the place of the 
bisulphide of carbon for the destruction of insects infesting 
seeds. It is not so energetic as the latter, so that larger quan- 
tities of the liquid must be used. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. See Carbon Bisulphide. 

Blight Powder. See Sulphated Sulphur. 

Blue Stone. See Copper Sulphate. 

Blue Vitriol. See Copper Sulphate. 

Borax. — Borax, whether used as a powder or in a strong 
solution, is of value in driving roaches and similar vermin from 
the places they frequent. 

Bordeaux Mixture ; Copper Mixture of Gironde ; 
Copper Sulphate and Lime Mixture; Millardet Mix- 
ture. — The early history of this fungicide has already been 
thoroughly discussed, as well as the first formulas adopted for 
its manufacture. The chemical composition of the mixture is 
by no means clear, for although at first thought it would 
seem that the reactions which take place when the copper 
sulphate solution and the milk of lime are brought in con- 
tact with each other nmst be quite simple, still such is not the 
case. The new compounds formed vary with the proportion of 
the ingredients, and all who have observed the behavior of the 
mixture must have noticed that it varies in color with the dif- 
ferent amounts of lime added, sometimes being intensely blue, 
again, much paler blue; and frequently a greenish tinge will be 
noticed, this being most marked when a small amount of lime 
is present. Since the chemistry of the mixture has not yet 
lieen accurately determined, it will be of little avail to discuss 
the various theories regarding its composition, and only those 
concerning which there is the most certainty may here be briefly 
mentioned. 

When the mixture was first studied, it was supposed that the 
union of the two ingredients caused the formation of copper 



126 The Spraying of Plants. 

hydrate, water, and tlie sulphate of lime, in accordance with 
the following reaction : 

CuS04,5H20 + CaOH/) =Cu(0H)2+ CaSO, +,H20. 

copper sulphate crystals +water-slaked lime=copperhydrate+lime sulpliate+water. 

It was soon found, however, that these changes would not 
account for the various phenomena noticed during its manufac- 
ture. Careful observation has shown that when lime is added 
to a certain point, the mixture assumes a greenish tinge, due 
to the formation of precipitates, probably basic sulphates of 
copper, in which this color predominates. It is a popular idea 
that the addition of lime is necessary in order to neutralize any 
free sulphuric acid which may be present. If such were the case, 
the precipitate would be largely a sulphate of lime, with no hy- 
droxide of copper. When lime is added to a solution of copper 
sulphate, the latter compound is entirely broken up and new ones 
formed. The presence of the basic sulphate of copper is thus 
explained. When sufficient lime is added so that the copper 
sulphate is entirely neutralized, most of the copper is probably 
precipitated in the form of a hydrate. But at least one other 
compound is sometimes formed in the Bordeaux mixture. This 
appears most commonly when an excess of lime has been added 
to a concentrated form of the mixture. It may be a double 
basic sulphate of copper and lime, but so little work has been 
done regarding its formation and action that no definite state- 
ments can be made. 

Whatever may be the composition of the Bordeaux mixture, 
it is certain that all but a trace of the copper is in the form of 
a precipitate or sediment which is practically insoluble in water. 
This settles to the bottom, leaving a clear solution above. This 
solution is of no value as a fungicide, for the sediment contains 
all the compounds useful for this purpose, and therefore the 
mixture should be kept thoroughly stirred that the sediment 
may be uniformly applied. 

But the reactions which take place in the Bordeaux mixture 
do not cease when the material is applied to the plant. It is 
well known that carbonic acid will cause considerable quanti- 
ties of copper to enter into solution again if the acid comes in 
contact with the copper sediment of the mixture, The chemj- 



Materials and Formulas. 127 

cal changes which take place have not been fully determmed, 
but Professor J. T. AVillard has suggested the following :i 

2 (Cii(0H)2, CUSO4) + CO2 = 

basic copper sulphate carbonic 

acid gas 

2 CUSO4 + Cu(0H)2 + CuCOg + HgO. 

copper copper copper water, 

sulphate hydrate carbonate 

This theory appears to be very plausible and several facts 
tend to support it. When dew or rain-water gathers upon a 
leaf, the liquid always contains a certain amount of carbonic 
acid gas in solution, obtaining it both from the air and from the 
leaf itself. If the foliage has been sprayed with the Bordeaux 
mixture, the carbonic acid comes in contact with the copper 
sediment, and a certain amount of the copper is dissolved. 
This much has been proved. That the dissolved cojDper may 
be in the form of the sulphate is also very probable, since it is 
well known that a solution of copper sulphate is injurious to 
foliage, and well-prepared Bordeaux mixture has also caused a 
similar injury. This alone is not very convincing, but when it is 
considered that the injury following the use of the fungicide does 
not take place immediately as a rule, but only after the sedi- 
ment has been exposed to the air for some time, the position is 
strengthened. If, however, the weather is of such a nature that 
the foliage is constantly wet by light showers, not enough rain 
falling to wash off the leaves but only to wet them, and if this 
were continued for some time, much iujury might be expected 
to result from the use of even such a safe preparation as the 
Bordeaux mixture. During the early part of the year 1894 
such conditions did exist, and much complaint was heard 
regarding the injury done to both apples and pears by the 
use of this remedy. It seems very probable that the carbonic 
acid should unite with some of the copper, and also with some 
of the lime, although no mention is made of this in the above 
reaction, and that pure copper sulphate should result. As the 
amount of this compound gradually increases, the injury to 
the foliage and the fruit naturally follows. 

1 Cited by Fairchild, U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. Veg. rath. Bull. 6, 14. 



128 The Spraying of Plants. 

The formation of the carbonate of lime may take place as 
soon as, or even before, the appearance of the copper snlphate, 
since the acid would probably act more energetically upon the 
hydrate of lime than upon the copper compounds; therefore 
the appearance of the copper sulphate "vvould depend to a 
certain extent upon the absence of the hydrate of lime. This 
well explains the tardiness with which the Bordeaux mixture 
injures foliage.^ 

Several corollaries follow from the above, and these have 
considerable practical bearing on the method of making the 
mixture. 

If a larger amount of lime is used than is required to satisfy 
the immediate chemical changes which take place, the more 
slowly will the fungicidal action of the Bordeaux mixture ap- 
pear. In wet seasons this is an advantage, since the mixture 
will retain its efficiency longer, and less injury will be done. 
The disadvantages of using much lime are very easily realized 
by all who have applied the mixture. The machinery is apt 
to be clogged, and the liquid becomes more dithcult to handle 
and to apply uniformly. The particles of lime probably also 
offer more resisting surface to rain in heavy showers, and more 
of the material will be washed from the trees. The use of as 
small an amount of lime as possible would therefore appear to 
be desirable, but such is the case only to a limited extent. 

The use of the ferrocyanide of potassium test, or Patrigeon's 
method, has already been mentioned on page 46. This test 
shows exactly how much lime is necessary to satisfy all imme- 
diate chemical changes, and it serves, therefore, as an index of 
the minimum amount required. The Bordeaux mixture so 
prepared is of an intense blue, and, as more commonly made, 
the amount of sediment is comparatively small. When applied 
to plants it is easily handled, and is in this respect the most 
satisfactory preparation. Its fungicidal action probably begins 
as soon as the application is made, and the copper is more ener- 
getic than when it is in the presence of considerable quantities of 

1 For more detailed accounts of the chemistry of Bordeaux mixture consult the 
work of Chester and of Sostegni. An abstract of Sostegni's article is in Cornell 
Agric. Ex-p. Sfa. 1892, Bull. 48. Fairchikl has written an exhaustive article on 
this fungicide, which was published as Bull. 6 of the Division of A^egetable Pathol- 
ogy, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and entitled " Bordeaux Mixture as a Fungi- 
cide." 



Materials and Forynulas. 129 

lime. The adhesive properties are perhaps greater than those 
of any of the otlier mixtures of tliis nature, and there are thus 
several features which recommend the method for general use. 
But the season of 1894 showed that the preparation is not a very 
safe one to use except in dry seasons, or in regions where the 
rainfall and dew are but slight. In the presence of much water, 
the mixture will injure both foliage and fruit, whatever may be 
the compound doing the mischief, and for this reason when so 
prepared it cannot be unqualifiedly recommended. In some sea- 
sons it may be used with impunity, while in others it may cause 
a loss which will more than overbalance any advantage derived. 
The ferrocyanide of potassium test is of great value in deter- 
mining how mnch lime is actually required, and in this manner 
it may serve as a check when the ingredients are not weighed, 
and then this neutral condition may be taken as a starting-point 
for the addition of more lime. 

In making the Bordeaux mixture by the aid of the ferrocya- 
nide of potassium test, certain points must be borne in mind in 
dissolving the copper sulphate. (See, also, CorPER Sulphate.) 
A definite proportion should exist between the amount of the 
salt used and the water in which it is dissolved. This is 
necessary so that the amount of the copper compound in a 
given amount of water may be known. The more common 
method is to dissolve either 1 or 2 pounds of copper sulphate 
in 1 gallon of water. Any desired amount can then easily be 
obtained by first stirring the stock solution thoroughly, and 
then taking out the quantity which holds the desired amount. 
The milk of lime is then added to the diluted solution nntil a 
few drops of the dissolved ferrocyanide of potassium (which 
see) give no brown discoloration when added to the mixture. 
A better way of using the test, however, is to add some of the 
mixture to a few drops of the solution, the latter being held in 
a butter dish or other article of white porcelain. This will 
show the presence of the red precipitate when it cannot be 
detected by the old method of adding the test solution to the 
mixture. It is probable that much of the injury which fol- 
lowed the use of the Bordeaux mixture in 1894 was caused by 
an insufficient amount of lime having been used, this being due 
to the fact that the ferrocyanide of potassium test did not show 
plainly the true condition of the preparation. A person ex- 
it 



130 The Spraying of Plants. 

perieiiced in making the mixture can tell by its color when 
sufficient lime has been added, but he cannot always tell how 
much to add in excess of the amount demanded by the test. 
For this reason it is safer to use a definite formula, provided 
the materials are fairly pure, since then there is less chance of 
a mistake ; this applies especially to beginners. 

Another test sometimes employed is to insert into the mix- 
ture a polished iron surface. If an insufficient amount of lime 
is present, so that some copper still remains in solution, the iron 
will become coated with this metal. The test is said to be very 
delicate. 

It is probably true that, as a rule, each extreme should be 
avoided. The formulas at present in use in America may be 
divided into two classes, — those in which the ingredients are 
weighed, and those in which the ferrocyanide of potassium test 
is used. Among the former we have the following : 

The '' Standard " or 3.6 p^r cent Bordeaux Mixture. 

Copper sulphate 6 pounds. 

Quickhme 4 " 

Water 22 gallons. 

This formula was at first extensively used, but it was found 
that a more dilute mixture would answer the purpose equally 
well, so it has been abandoned for the mixture which may now 
be termed 

The '^Normal," or l.(^ per cent Bordeaux Mixture. 

Copper sulphate 6 pounds. 

Quicklime 4 " 

Water 45 gallons. 

This formula, or one in which the amount of water varies 
from 40 to 50 gallons, may now be considered the most popular 
in America. Sixty gallons of water should be used when 
spraying peaches. If air-slaked lime is used in place of the 
fresh article, the amount should be doubled, and even then its 
use cannot be recommended, since too little is yet known re- 
garding the composition and action of the mixture prepared 
in this manner. By a 3.G per cent Bordeaux mixture is meant 
one in which the weight of the copper sulphate is equal to 3.6 
per cent of the weight of the water, consideriug 1 gallon to 



Materials and Formidas. 131 

weigh 8.345 pounds. For the same reason the normal mixture 
may be termed a 1.6 per cent Bordeaux, as the 6 pounds form sucli 
a percentage of the weight of the water. This method of desig- 
nating the various mixtures is the one generally adopted in 
Europe, and it is convenient here for purposes of comparison. 

Occasionally the recommendation is made to add 1 quart of 
molasses to the above mixture in order to increase its adhesive 
properties. As a matter of fact, the addition is rarely made, 
and is scarcely necessary, since the mixture, even when used 
alone, is one of the most adhesive of fungicides. The addition 
of from 1 to 2 pounds of soap has been made for the same 
purpose, and also to make the mixture spread more evenly. 
The value of the mixture is slightly increased by such additions ; 
nevertheless, they are scarcely necessary. 

In Italy the milk of lime is not used in making the Bordeaux 
mixture, but in its place lime water, which is a saturated solu- 
tion, is added to the copper sulphate solution. This makes a 
very dilute mixture,'as the following formula of Cavazza shows. 

Cavazza's Borcieaux mixture (Italian) : 

Copper sulphate 720 grams. 

Lime water 100 liters. 

This is a neutral mixture which contains about .072 jDer cent 
of copper sulphate. It is very highly recommended in Italy, 
and Professor Cavazza writes me that he has used the mixture 
so prepared, since 1886, for controlling fungous diseases of the 
grape as well as those of the peach, and in general it is there 
used in preference to other formulas. The French, howevei", 
nse a mixture having from 1 to 2 per cent of cof)per sulphate, 
the milk of lime being preferred to a saturated solution. 

When the Bordeaux mixture is made according to a certain 
formula, a few points must be observed which it is unnecessary 
to notice when the ferrocyanide of potassium test is used. The 
directions given above call for 1 to 2 pounds of copper sulphate 
to each gallon of water, the smaller amount being preferable. 
This solution should be diluted one-half before the lime is added. 
If too little water is present when the two ingredients are brought 
together, the mixture thickens up like sour milk, and it must 
be thoroughly stirred to change it to a more liquid form. Such 
concentrated mixtures are not, on the whole, the best to make, 



132 The Spraying of Plants, 

as in my experience the sediment is more coarse than when a 
larger amount of water allows of a more free intermingling of 
the two ingredients. Two gallons of water to every pound of 
copper sulphate is a safe proportion, and the use of still more 
water might be of benefit. All immediate chemical action has 
largely ceased a few minutes after the lime and the copper 
sulphate have been brought together, and the mixture may 
then be diluted as desired, and immediately applied. 

The most convenient method of making the mixture is to 
have a stock solution of definite strength, so that any desired 
amount of the sulphate may be taken. This should be diluted 
as already described, and then the milk of lime should be added. 
This ingredient may also be prepared in large quantities before 
using; it will keep indefinitely if kept covered with water. 

The sediment in the Bordeaux mixture remains in suspen- 
sion much better during the first twenty-four hours after 
the two ingredients are brought together; in fact, it settles 
so slowly that an agitator is scarcely necessary during this 
period. But after a day or two, probably on account of some 
physical change in the mixture, the sediment rapidly settles, 
rendering the use of an agitator essential for a uniform appli- 
cation. To what extent this change affects the fungicidal 
value of the mixture is not known, but if care is exercised in 
keeping the old mixture well stirred, it is probable that good 
results will follow. Such, at least, has been the writer's experi- 
ence with Bordeaux mixture which was allowed to stand several 
weeks before it was applied to the apple trees wiiich were being 
treated. 

If the Bordeaux mixture has been imperfectly made, or if it 
is not applied with proper machinery, it will be found better to 
strain either the lime before it is added to the copper sulphate 
solution, or else the mixture before it is applied, the former 
being perhaps the better plan. The mixture should be kept 
constantly stirred w^hen the application is made. 

The dried sediment has been used in place of the liquid form, 
but the results w^ere not equally satisfactory. It was found 
that about four times as much material was necessary when the 
powder was applied, and, besides, its efficiency was apparently 
less marked. (See, also, David's Powder.) 

Bordeaux mixture is said to possess a certain value as an 



Materials and Formulas. 133 

insecticide, but this action is not sufficiently great that its use 
for this purpose can be recommended. Flea beetles appear to 
be most easily overcome or driven away by this preparation, 
and it is possible that it can be used to advantage for this pur- 
pose when the pest causes much damage. ^ Uniformly good 
results have not always followed its use for this purpose, how- 
ever. 

Bordeaux Mixture and Molasses. — Ferret mentions the 
following formula as possessing especial merit : ^ 

Copper sulphate 4^ pounds. 

Quicklime 4^ " 

Molasses 4^ *' 

Water 30 gallons. 

Dissolve the lime in 24 gallons of water. To this add the 
molasses, which has been diluted with 3 gallons of water ; stir 
this well and pour in the copper sulphate, also dissolved in 3 
gallons of water. The precipitate settles slowly, leaving a 
greenish colored liquid above. This color is a proof of the suc- 
cess of the operation. The mixture, even when diluted to 40 or 
50 gallons, may be recommended for trial, although in this 
country it will scarcely prove superior to the preparation com- 
monly employed. Sugar has also been used in place of the 
molasses. 

Bordeaux Mixture, Dried. See David's Fowder. 

BuHACH. See Fyrethrum. 

Carbolic Acid; Fhenic Acid; Phenol; CgHgO. — Car- 
bolic acid is a powerful poison to the lower forms of life, and 
is very extensively used as an antiseptic. Its value as an in- 
secticide or as a fungicide is, however, comparatively slight, 
and it cannot be recommended for such use. It has been very 
thoroughly tested however, and the following has been fre- 
quently recommended for the destruction of root insects : 

Carbolic acid 1 part. 

Water 50-100 parts. 

1 For further details regarding this subject the reader is referred to Jones, Vt. 
Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S94, Bull. 44, 95 ; Halsted, N'.J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 
107, 13 ; Lodeman, Cornell AgHc. Exp. Sta. 1S95, Bull. 86, 58. Ann. Rept. Vt. 
Agric. Exp. Sta. 1894, 12, 95 et seq. 

2 Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1892, April, 508. 



134 The S^jraying of Plants. 

Carbolic Acid and Glycerine: 

Carbolic acid h pi^t. 

Glycerine 1 pound. 

Soap-suds 10 gallons. 

An emulsion should be made of these ingredients. Apply 
against sucking insects. 

Carbolic Acid and Soap. — An emulsion of carbolic acid 
and a soap solution may be made very readily according to the 
following formula, and the x^i'oduct possesses considerable in- 
secticidal value, largely on account of the presence of the soap ; 

Carbolic acid 1 pint. 

Soft soap (hard soap 4 pound) 1 quart. 

Hot water 2 gallons. 

The soap is first dissolved in the water, after Avhich the acid 
is added; an emulsion is then produced by thorough agitation. 
It destroys insects by coming in contact with them, and may be 
applied as a w^ash or in the form of a spray. It should be used 
upon dormant wood only. 

Carbolic Acid Emulsion. — The stock solution is pre- 
pared as in the preceding, but should he diluted with thirty 
parts of water before being applied to foliage. 

Carbolized Plaster. — Carbolic acid is occasionally mixed 
with some dry powder as plaster, air-slaked lime, road dust, 
etc., and the two are then applied together. It possesses little 
value, but the recommendation is to use : 

Carbolic acid 1 jiint. 

Plaster or other powder 50 i^ounds. 

It is most useful when applied to plums which suffer from 
the curculio. If it is used with lime, it is effective in destroy- 
ing slugs upon all plants. 

Carbonate of Copper. See Copper Carbonate. 

Carbon Bisulphide; Disulpiiide of Carbon; Fuma; CS.,. 
— This is a clear, colorless liquid, highly volatile and inflamma- 
ble. The commercial article has a powerful and disagreeable 
odor. The fumes are poisonous to animal life, and in this lies 
the value of the liquid. Its insecticidal properties seem to have 



Materials and Formulas. 135 

been first utilized by Louis Dayere, formerly professor of agri- 
culture at the lustitute of Versailles. He used the liquid in 
Algiers for preventing insects from injuring stored wheat, and 
it is now commonly used in this country for similar purposes. i 
The vapor is heavy and it is better, wheji possible, to apply 
the liquid above the parts to be treated, so that the entire space 
may be more quickly filled. The amount of liquid to use will 
vary with the tightness of the receptacle, and the character of 
the product to l)e protected. For growing plants it is not advis- 
able to evaporate more than 20 or 25 minims in a vessel con- 
taining from 2 to 3 cubic feet of space, this being an equivalent 
of 1 pint of the liquid to aliout 1000 cubic feet of space, or to 1 
ton of grain. If so used, the receptacle should be as nearly air- 
tight as possible. When grain or other seeds are treated, the 
amount can be advantageously increased, and much larger quan- 
tities than the above can be used without fear of injury. All 
vermin that live underground can also be successfully extermi- 
nated. Ants' nests may be destroyed by making a hole in the 
center of the nests, and then pouring in 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of 
the liquid, after which the hole should be tightly closed with 
earth. Woodchucks and gophers can easily be killed by means 
of this i^oison ; about a gill of the fluid is poured upon rags or 
cotton, and these are then forced into the animal's burrow. 
The opening should then be closed, and the woodchuck will 
cause no more trouble if all the holes are similarly treated. 

Subterranean applications for the destruction of insects have 
also been successfully made. The phylloxera of the grape has 
been so destroyed, and the cabbage I'oot-maggot may be over- 
come in this manner more advantageously than in any other. 
A machine known as the McGowen bisulphide of carbon in- 
jector ^ was invented in 1894 for the purpose of making such 
applications, so the liquid may now be used quickly and effec- 
tively in treating underground insects. 

Carbon Bisulphide and Kerosene. — The mixture is pre- 
pared by using 1 part of carbon bisulphide, and from 5 to 20 
parts of kerosene. The two should be thoroughly stirred before 
being applied. The action is similar to that of the bisulj)hide 
of carbon, but the mixture is practically out of use. 

1 AkhMr, 1857, Oct. 16. Cited in Ganh Chron. 1S58, Aug. 28, 653. 

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sfa. 1894, Bull. 78. 



136 The Spraying of Plants, 

Chlokide of Copper. See Copper Chloride. 

Chloride of Iron. See Iron Chloride. 

Clay. See Washes. 

Coal Tar. — If a few quarts of coal tar are added to a barrel 
of water, the liquid soon becomes so impregnated with the odor 
that it may be used as a repellent of insects. A strong solution 
of gas tar may be used for a similar purpose, but these applica- 
tions possess comparatively little value. 

Combinations of Insecticides and Fungicides. — The 
most successful of these combinations is that of the Bordeaux 
mixture and compounds of arsenic. The lime in the mixture 
prevents the arsenic from injuring foliage, while it does not 
appear to lessen the efficiency of the poison. Each preparation 
is applied at the same rate as if used alone. 

A combination of the ammoniacal carbonate of copper and 
an arsenite has been used with success by some, but such a 
preparation is frequently very injurious to foliage, and it 
should be applied with caution. The ammonia acts as a 
solvent of the arsenic, and this solution does the damage. 
The addition of lime would tend to reduce the severity of 
the injury. 

The Bordeaux mixture has been used as an agent for emulsi- 
fying kerosene, with apparently satisfactory results.^ The 
preparation should be more thoroughly tested before it can 
be recommended. Kerosene emulsion and Bordeaux mixture 
have been combined, but not with satisfactory results. See 
also Cornell Mixture. 

When pure kerosene is emulsified with the Bordeaux mixture, 
the combination allows the addition of Paris green, making 
a mixture adapted to destroy nearly all the insect and fungous 
enemies of plant life. When a mixture of kerosene emulsion 
and the Bordeaux mixture is made, tlie arsenite cannot be 
added successfully ; for even when the emulsion and the arsen- 
ite are united, the resulting mixture is still unsatisfactory. 

Resin washes and kerosene emulsion, applied together, have 
not yet been sufficiently studied and tested to determine the 
value of such mixtures. 

A simple solution of resin, made as described on page 169, is 

1 See Galloway, Inject Life, vii. 126, for an account of this and otlier com- 
binations. 



Materials and Formulas. 137 

said to increase the adhesive power of the Bordeaux mixture 
wlieii the two are applied together. 

The resin preparations and arsenical compounds have been 
successfully united and applied, but such combinations are at 
present little used. 

Copper vVcetate ; Verdet ; Yerdigris. — There are sev- 
eral compounds of copper and acetic acid, but the one which 
has been used in spraying is known as the dibasic acetate of 
copper. It possesses only fairly good fungicidal properties, but 
it has been highly recommended for its adhesion to foliage. It 
may be applied at the rate of 2 to 4 ounces in about 25 gallons 
of water. 

Copper Arsenite. See Sheele's Green, page 120. 

Copper Carbonate ; Carbonate of Copper ; CuCOg. — 
Chester's method of preparing this chemical is as follows : 
" Dissolve in a barrel 25 pounds of copper sulphate in hot 
water. In another barrel dissolve 30 pounds of sal-soda. 
Allow both solutions to cool, then slowly pour the solution of 
sal-soda into the copper sulphate solution, stirring the same. 
Fill the barrel with water and allow the precipitate of copper 
carbonate to settle. Upon the following day siphon oft' the 
clear supernatant liquid, which contains most of the injurious 
sodium sulphate in solution. Fill the barrel again with water, 
and stir the precipitate vigorously into suspension ; again allow 
the precipitate to settle, and again on the following day siphon 
oft" the clear liquid. The operation washes the carboifate free 
of most of the sodium sulphate which contaminates it. Make 
a filter of stout muslin, by tacking the same to a square wooden 
frame which will just fit over the open top of the second barrel, 
letting the muslin hang down loosely so as to form a sack ; 
through this filter the precipitate, so as to drain off the excess 
of water, and as the filter fills remove the precipitate, and allow 
it to dry in the air, when it is ready for use. The operation 
is not troublesome, and can be carried on in connection with 
other work."i The following reactions are at present supposed 
to take place when the two solutions are united r^ 12 (CuSO^, 
5H,0) + 12 (NaoCOo, 10n,O) = 6 [CuCOg, Cu(OH)„ H^OJ -f 
12 Na, SO4 + 6 C62 + I68 YLf>. 

1 Ann. Bepl. U. S. Com. Agric. 1890, 403. 

2 Del. Agric. Exp. Sia. hth Ann. Rept. 1S91, 67. 



138 The Spraying of Plants. 

By using the above amounts of material, there will be formed 
a trifle over 12 pounds of the carbonate of copper, the selling 
price of which is about forty cents a pound. When thus made 
at home, the cost is only about fifteen cents, which is a great 
saving, especially as the material is nearly chemically pure. 

Copper carbonate is a fine, bluish-green powder, insoluble in 
water. It dissolves readily in ammoniaj forming the ammoni- 
acal solution of copper carbonate, which see. The powder 
has often been used as a fungicide when suspended in water, 
but the results obtained have almost invariably been unsatisfac- 
tory. When applied in this manner, however, the following 
formula wdll prove most satisfactory : 

Copper carbonate 1 i^ound. 

Water 40 gallons. 

The liquid should be agitated frequently to prevent the cop- 
j)er compound from settling to the bottom. The cost of copper 
carbonate varies from thirty-five to sixty cents per pound. 

Copper Carbonate, Ammoniac al Solhtion ; Cupram. — 
Penny ^ has made a very careful study of the best method of 
preparing this solution, and the results of his work are here 
given in full : 

" The iDractical directions then are these : To 1 volume of 
26° Beaume ammonia (the strong ammonia of commerce) add 
from 7 to 8 volumes of water. Then add copper carbonate, 
best in successive quantities, until a large portion remains un- 
dissolved. The mixture should be vigorously agitated during 
the solution and finally allowed to subside, and the clear liquid 
poured off from the undissolved salt. A second portion should 
then be made by treating the residue of the former lot with 
more ammonia diluted as before, then with the addition of 
fresh copper carbonate, in every case with vigorous stirring or 
agitation. This method of making in successive lots will result 
in a richer solution of copper, at least, unless an unwarranted 
length of time be taken. This solution may be made in any 
suitable wooden or stoneware vessel. 

"A still better way is to place in a large jar an inverted 

1 The chemistry of this sohition has been thoroughly treated by C. L. Penny, of 
the Del. Agric. Exp. Sta. an account of which may be found in Bull. 22. I have 
also quoted freely from other bulletins of the same station on these subjects. 



Materials and Formulas. 139 

crock, or other suitable shelf, and on this the copper carbonate, 
so that it shall be at the surface of the ammonia when it is 
poured in. After adding the ammonia, diluted as above, the 
whole should be allowed to stand covered some time, as over 
night, and then the undissolved copper salt may be in great 
part easily lifted out of the solution. Instead of the shelf a 
suitable receptacle may be used, as a fine wire sieve. The jar 
will need nothing but a loose cover, as the loss of ammonia will 
be slight at that degree of dilution. 

" The clear solution thus obtained, containing from 3 to 4 per 
cent of ammonia gas, must be diluted as described above, in no 
case less than 13 or 15 fold, better, for the safety of the plant, 
20 fold or more. 

'• Those directions which recommend so much ammonia (what- 
ever it may be) to be used as may be necessary to dissolve the 
copper salt and then to dilute to a given number of gallons, are 
not only not economical, but absolutely dangerous, inasmuch as 
it is an uncertainty just how much ammonia may be used in 
the first instance, and hence uncertain what strength it may 
have after dilution, when applied to the trees. It should be 
borne in mind always that if strong ammonia is used it must 
be diluted from first to last at least 100 fold, and better con- 
siderably more. 

"The solubility of copper carbonate in ammonium carbonate 
has been studied but not yet sufficiently for report." 

After the copper carbonate has been dissolved in ammonia 
M'ater, it should be used by taking as much of the fluid as con- 
tains 1 ounce of dissolved copper carbonate, and this is then 
diluted with 9 gallons of water. These proportions should be 
retained when either larger or smaller quantities of the fungi- 
cide are desired. 

The ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate possesses some 
decided advantages. It is a clear solution entirely free from 
sediment, and can therefore be applied as readily as M^ater. 
Another favorable point is that it may be used quite freely 
upon maturing fruit, and also upon flowering plants, without 
leaving any conspicuous stain. When certain plants require 
spraying with a fungicide shortly before the crop is harvested, 
this preparation is an excellent one to use. In efficiency it also 
ranks high, being clearly surpassed in this respect only by the 



10 



77/r Sjfiutil'niil of /'/((n(s. 



IJordciMix inixhin'. \l is mImo clicip, ;iinl oii llir whole is oi I" 

our iiio.mI. \ ;iIii;iJ»I(' reiiKMlics. 

SeV(M':il (Idiiiili' roniiiil.'is li;i\t' licni ncoiii iiirmlcd lui' Mm> 
mJMilir.-M'liirc <>r lliis riilii;ici<lt', Mir l,\\(» lollow in;; liciin; Mir bcsl, 
known : 



( Idpitcr CI rlxMKilr 

AmiiHiiii.-i. ("J'J ' r.d.'dunr) 



.. oimccH. 
I (|ii:irl. 



Agil.nic until Mir (-((piM-r is coiiiiddi'ly <lissol\ ctl. It will 
k<'(^|) iiHldiiiilcly, liul. sliouM Im^ diliilrd wiMi 25 ^iiJions of 
wilier. 

( !(i|>|)(>|- (-.'MlMillIlti^ .••.••■ Ti ulUICOH. 

AiiiiM(»iii;i (■'(■) r.i:iiiiiir) U piiilH. 

Wilier. . Ifi };;ill(HiH. 

The ;iniiiioni:i, should he diluted iiM .'i.li'endy des(;ril)e<l, Mi'l/cr 
which (he coitiMT will dissolve ni()i'(^ reiMJily. Sixly eidlouH ol' 
wilier should \>i'. used when Hpniyilie- |>e}U'|ies. 

('oudiiunJ'ions of Mm; !i,iiiiuoui;u;id (tiirhoiiiiXc^ of (;(>|)|)ei' iind Mut 
5i,fS(Uiites ii,r<^ said lo hiive heen used with Hiieecss, hut my own 
ex|K!fiui(UilH hiivti rcHulted dilteicnl ly . The eoiiil>inid ion in jiiied 
folillU'C". to HUeli ',\.\\ extent Mint it wiis iilmiidolied id'ter l'()|»e;i,led 
trinJs. When I'mis tureen wiis ;i(lde<l, llwr mixture vviis |ni.r- 
tieiilii rl y eiuistie, siiKM- the, lunnioniii iindoulitedl y enused S(Uii(^ 
(>r the iU'SCMiii; to (Miirr into Holution. Loiulon |uii'|)|e <lid not 
mid<('. HO <'ii,ustie II, mixtiir(% hut iie,\ ertheless eonsideriihle injury 
resulted, :ind these (^omhinid ions may Ite consiijeied iinsiile. 
The luMitioli ol' inilh (»r linie, li(»\V(We|-, ol)\i;ites Ihe tfoilMe, 
and renders the pritpiuaiion a. sale one. l/ime to Ihe .imoiintoi' 
two lo Ihreo linuiH Mk; hidk of th(< poison shonld he .idded. 

TIku'c a,re sev(U"Jil otiier mixtures which, in composition, are 
essentially the. Hamc- as the solution ol copper c.iilionale in 
a.nimonia. I'luiy ani Dm inodilied e.ui ce|<-ste, copper :uid am 
moniiim carlMUiate. mixiuns ni"l .lolmson's mixtur<\ ITeeard- 
ine' |,|iese, Chester says, "For all praclie;d purposes, the. al>ov(^ 
ruugieidcM ol' this eroiip ;ire one imd Ihe siiuk-, the essential 
copper salt heine, in cnh cise, wiiat for hrevity we may cuW an 
iiiiiiiiniiiitiii cD/ifirr r(iih<ni(ii(\, bid, whic.ii Is 111 reality a mixture of 
'■'iiinioiiiiim copper e;ii|,ona,t0 (('ii(!(),,/JN 1 1.,) ami ammonium 
cu|)ric hydroxide | ;i ('ii( O.I I ),,, I Nil,,, :ill,,()|." ' 

' />,/. Aiirlr. ICp. SI, I. litk Am,, h'. pt. iKDJ, «H. 



Materiah and Formulae. 141 

COPPKK ('AlfMONAlK AND AmMONHIM CaKUONATK M I X'I rjtK, 

— This iiiixtiir(; w:is proposed ))y (Uioslcr in 1800. He thought 
it posHi))h; tiiat ;iiiiiiioni;i might not he, th(^ [)est solvent of 
t;o|)))('r <;;trl>on.'it(! ;in(l the rollovving I'oi'innlu uses aininonimn 
caihonatc, in phiec- of animonimn vvatiM'. 'riic, i(!siilting I'mi- 
gicidc is nearly i(h'nti(!al with copper carbonate dissolved in 
ammonia, and th(! rcsmarks regarding that fiingieide also npply, 
ill the nniin, to this pr(;[)aration : 

( !(i|)jM'r (•;trl>(iiiat(i ;> ouuctiS. 

Annneiiiinii (;:irl)(iii:il(; 1 pound. 

Walcr 40-45 ^aliens. 

** liy this combination all the co|)])or is completely dissolved. 
To lest the (piestiun, I pre|)are(l the above riingieide with the 
exception th.it I took r)oune<'S()l" I he copp(M" cai'bonate in order 
to have ;in excess. An analysis showed that llu? 1 ])onnd of 
:unmoniiim carbonate! had (lissolv((d .'}.I1 onncies of the original 
C()p|>ei" c;irbonate." ^ 

i\mmoniinn ciirbonate can be l»onght for lifteen lo thii-|y 
(MM lis per pound. 

('ol'l'l')!.' AS. See il{oN Si' I, I'M All;. 

Coi'i'Ki; ('iii.oiv'iin; ; CkiC'i.o. — 'I'he chloride of co])]wr lias 
reecived little ntteiition as a fungicide, iilthoiigh it is a ]n-om- 
ising compound. It contains 1(1. OM per c<'nt oi" aclual cojv 
per. \Vhen used alone, it is very caustics to loiiagc, a solntion 
oi 1! ounces in 25 gallons of wiiter being too strong. Two 
oi' three times its bulk of lime should be .idded, when 5 (umces 
to LT) gallons of watv will ])rove a satisfactory |U'oport i(ui. The 
undissolved crystals must- be ke|)t- in tightly closed glass vessels, 
as they absorb water rapidly, and aic soon reduced to a- li(]uid 
condition. The chemical is at i)reseiiti too expensive for general 
use. 

Coi'i'i'i; S(»i>\ Mixri'i.'i;. See Coimmii; ("aisuonaii;. 

CorriK Soimi.M II vi'«)siii.i'iirrK ; - X a.,S..(),,, C'i!.,S.,( )... ^ — This 
material may be prepared as follows: " Dissohc S ounces of sul- 
phate of copper in hot water, t hen dilute with cold w ater, to about 
I (► gallons. In a not her \cssel dissoKc I pound of li\ |>osulpliite of 

' Clu'slcr, />■/. .((//•/,■. K.rjt. S/,i. hth Ami. I{,'pl. |S()|, 71. 

- Kor !i iiiDic f()m|)l<'l<' (lisciissioii of tliis riiiij,''k'i(lo, sec Dtl. Ayi'ic. K.t'p. Sla. 
I,lh Ann. /:,jif. l^tU, 7:!. 



142 Tlie Spraying of Plants. 

soda in cold water; add the two together; dilute in 25 gallons." 
The preparation possesses no special fungicidal value. 

Copper Sulphate ; Sulphate of Copper ; Blue Vitriol ; 
Blue Stone; CuSO^; CuSO^ + oHgO.— This chemical is formed 
by uniting metallic copper and sulphuric acid, the product being 
formed in several different w^ays. The substance is deposited 
from solutions in the form of large, blue, transparent crystals 
containing 25.46 per cent of actual copper, and it is in this 
form that the salt is commonly sold. Granulated copper sul- 
phate is formed by breaking up the larger crystals ; otherwise, 
it is identical with the other form. On account of the fine- 
ness of the particles, the mass loses its deep blue color, and for 
this reason the granulated form offers greater temptations for 
adulteration. A pure solution of copper sulphate forms a red- 
dish-brown discoloration wdth a solution of the ferrocyanide of 
potassium, and this may be used as a test for the purity of the 
copper compound. 

Copper sulphate is readily soluble in cold water, and still 
more so in hot water. A solution may be quickly made by 
hanging the material in a coarse sack near the surface of the 
water. This is done so that the dissolved portion may settle to 
the bottom as fast as it enters into solution, for in this manner 
the crystals are continually surrounded by clear liquid. If the 
crystals are placed in the bottom of the vessel, they are soon 
surrounded by a saturated solution which prevents them from 
being dissolved until the contents of the vessel are stirred so 
that the more clear liquid may come in contact with the crystals. 

Copper sulphate should always be dissolved in wooden or 
earthen vessels. If an iron vessel is used, the copper wdll be 
deposited upon the iron, forming a copper-plated portion 
wherever the two come in contact. 

A simple solution of copper sulphate should be sparingly 
applied to foliage, for when the liquid is sufficiently concen- 
trated to have a decided fungicidal action it causes so much 
injury to most foliage that its use cannot be considered safe. 
This compound is more caustic than some other forms of 
copper, but Professor Taft recommends the use of a simple 
solution of copper sulphate instead of ammonia solution of 
copper compounds. He has sucessfully applied solutions con- 
taining 1 part of blue vitriol in 1000 parts of water to plants 



Materials and Fofmulas. 143 

whose foliage is not so tender as that of peaches or beans. It is 
vahied also because it does not stain the parts treated. ^ On 
dormant wood it can be used freely. It is then made of 

Copper sulphate 1 pound. 

Water 15-25 j^allons. 

The more dilute solution is for such tender wood as peaches. 
Grain is often soaked in a solution of copper sulphate to destroy 
spores of smut. The preparation is then made of 

Copper sulphate 1 pound. 

Water 1-2 gallons. 

The use of a one-half per cent solution has been recom- 
mended for a similar purpose, the seed being soaked for twelve 
or fifteen hours. 

CoprER Sulphate and Sulphuric Acid Solution. — An- 
other, and a rather restricted use of copper sulphate, is to make 
a saturated solution, and to this add about 1 per cent of com- 
mercial sulphuric acid. The preparation is, of course, used 
only uf)on dormant wood, and is especially recommended for 
anthracnose of tiie grape. 

The price of copper sulphate varies greatly. The granulated 
form may bi; bought for four to fifteen cents per pound, and the 
crystals at four to eight cents. 

Copper Sulphate and Ammonium Carbonate Mixture. 
— See Johnson's Mixture. 

Copper Sulphate, Anhydrous. — When copper sulphate 
crystals (CuSO^ + 5 II2O) are heated, the water of crystallization 
is driven oft" and only a pale blue powder remains (CUSO4 + 
2 II.jO). This dissolves readily in water, and possesses the prop- 
erties of the original crystals, although the weight is reduced, 
which leaves a greater proportionate amount of actual copper. 
The powder has been applied wlien mixed with sulphur or other 
powders for the prevention of mildew, but it is now little used. 

Cornell Mixture. — This preparation consists of a mixture 
of Bordeaux mixture, kerosene eiuulsion, and an arsenical com- 
pound. The combination is made witli difficulty, but success 
may follow if a few points are observed. The r>ordeaux mix- 
ture must be exactly neutral, and here the ferrocyanide of 

'^American JgricuKurisf, niidcllo edition, 1895, Jul}' 20, 34, 



144 The Spraying of Plants. 

potassium test is of value. The kerosene emulsion should be 
made according to the Hubbard-Riley formula, and then be 
poured into the Bordeaux mixture. And finally the arsenite 
may be added. Unfortunately, even if the combination be 
successfully made, the various ingredients appear to lose much 
of their value when so applied, and as yet the preparation 
cannot be generally recommended. i 

Corrosive Sublimate. See Mercuric Chloride. 

CuPRAM. — A term applied to copper carbonate dissolved in 
ammonia, which see. 

CupRic Steatite. See Sulphosteatite. 

CuPROSTEATiTE. — This powder closely resembles sulphostea- 
tite in its composition, but while the latter contains about 10 per 
cent of copper sulphate, the copper in cuprosteatite is in the 
form of the hydrate, about 15 per cent of the powder being of 
this material. On this account the fungicide is said to be 
less caustic to foliage than sulphosteatite. Both powders are 
applied in the same manner. 

Cyanide of Potassium. See Hydrocyanic Gas. 

Dalmatian Insect Powder. See Pyrethrum. 

David's Powder; Dried Bordeaux Mixture. — The old 
formula for preparing the powder called for 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds. 

Quicklime 16 pounds. 

As little water as possible was used for dissolving the sul- 
phate and for slaking the lime ; the two were then united and 
the product dried. It was then ground to a powder and ap- 
plied. The ingredients used at present in making the Bordeaux 
mixture can be similarly treated. When the dried mixture is 
iised in place of that suspended in water, it has been found that 
about four times the amount of the materials is required, and 
the distribution is on the whole not so satisfactory. The pow- 
der has never been used to any great extent, and for the reasons 
given will probably never become popular. 

Eau Celeste (Audoynaud process). 

Copper sulphate 1 pound. 

Hot water 2 gallons. 

1 See also Slingerland, Science, xxii. No. 551, 105. Also, Bailey, Annals Hort. 
1893, 43. 



Materials and Formulas. 145 

"When the crystals are dissolved and the liquid has cooled, add 

Ammonia (22° Beaume) 1^ pints. 

AVater, to make 25 gallons. 

This fungicide has a caustic action upon foliage and cannot 
be recommended with safety. According to Professor Chester, 
'' the probable reactions taking place in the preparation of the 
eau celeste are : ^ 

1. 3[CuS04, 5H2O] +4NH4IIO 

normal cojuier sulphate ainmonia 

water 

= CUSO4, 2Cu(OH)3 + 2(NH4)2, SO4 + I5H2O. 

basic oojii)er 

2. CUSO4, 2 Cu(0II)2 + 2(NH4)2, SO4 + 8 NH^HO 

111 excess. 

= 3(CuS04, 4NH3, up)+QU.f>r 

ammonium copper sulphate 

Nevertheless, the fungicide is not a safe one to use.^ 
Emulsions. — Of the insecticides which kill by contact there 
are none more effective than those which are composed of emul- 
sion of soap solutions and such penetrating liquids as mineral 
oils. The kerosene emulsions are the best known and most 
generally used. (See under Kerosene.) But the following 
liquids have been recommended ^ as suitable substitutes for this 
oil. The percentages of the amounts to use in the enuilsions 
are given for comparison : 

Benzine emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent. 

Kerosene emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent. 

" Nitro benzina " emulsion, containing from . . 0.5 to 0.75 per cent. 
Bisulphide of carbon emulsion, containing from 0.5 to 0.75 per cent. 

The general method of procedure for preparing these emul- 
sions is as follows : 

" Active principle (oils, etc.) 0.5 to 1.0 per cent. 

Soft soap 0.5 to 2.0 per cent. 

Water of preparation 1.0 to 3.0 per cent. 

AVater of dilution 99.0 to 97.0 per cent." 

^Del. Agric. Exp. 8ta. hik Ann. Rept. 1891, 68. 

2 Perret, in Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1887, June 23, 878, says that the precipitate 
first formed when ammonia is added to a copper sulphate solution is a hydrated 
oxide of copper (oxide de cuivre hydrate). The clear liquid contains the sulphate of 
ammonia, which has a tendency to injure foliage. 

3 Ad. TargiouiTozzetti," Mostra di Sostanze e di Emulsioni Insetticide," 1891, 17. 

L 



146 The Spraying of Plants. 

These ingredients are mixed in a definite order : 

(a) Dissolve the soap in the insecticide. 

(&) Add this sohition to the water of preparation, and agitate. 

(c) The water of dihition may then be added, and the emul- 
sion again thoroughly agitated. 

In America the method followed is to dissolve the soap in the 
"water of preparation," after which the oil is added. This 
mixture is then thoroughly agitated, commonly by means of a 
force-pump, until all the oil is emulsified. If the liquids are 
hot, an emulsion may be produced more easily. 

Ferrocyanide of Potassium; Yellow Prussiate of 
Potash; Iv^FeCy,.. — The only value this material possesses in 
connection with spraying is to assist in making the Bordeaux 
mixture, and to serve as a test for discovering the presence 
of sulphate of iron. The test solution may be made by dis- 
solving the compound in water : 

Ferrocyanide of potassium 1 ounce. 

Water 1 pint. 

The test solution forms a reddish-brown precipitate, or discol- 
oration (the ferrocyanide of copper, CugFeCy,.), with a dissolved 
copper salt, but a blue precipitate with an iron salt. See page 
151. 

Fish-oil Soap. — 

Crystal potash lye 1 pound. 

Fish-oil 3 pints. 

Soft water 3 gallons. 

Dissolve the lye in the water, and when boiling, add the oil, 
and boil for two hours. One pound of the soap may be dissolved 
in 5 to 10 gallons of water. This is of value as an insecticide. 

Flour. — Flour is sometimes added to liquids to render them 
more adhesive. It may be used at the rate of 1 pound to 40 
or 50 gallons of the preparation, but such additions are rarely, 
if ever, advisable. An exception may be made in the case of 
powders, especially those containing the arsenites. With these, 
the addition of flour, at the rate of five to ten times the bulk of 
the poison, may be of service in rendering the mixture more ad- 
herent to the foliage. But this condition is often followed by 



Materials and Formulas. 147 

serious injury, undoubtedly due to the fact that the poison is 
not washed off, but remains to burn the foliage. The addition 
of lime to the mixture would probably be beneficial. 

FosTiTE. See Sulpiiostkatite. 

FuMA. — A form of carbon bisulphide, which see. 

Gas Treatment. See Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. 

Glue. — (Jlue is frequently recommended as a valuable addi- 
tion to insecticides and fungicides; it is supposed to increase 
their adhesive pro]ierties, and probably does so to a limited ex- 
tent. In general practice its use is unnecessary, but in case 
liquids do not adhere to foliage when the application is first 
made, the addition of some cheap glue, used at the rate of 1 
pound to 50 gallons of liquid, may prove of value. 

Glue and Arsenites. — 

Common glue 1 pound. 

Paris green 1 onnce. 

Hot water 2 gallons. 

The gbie is first dissolved in hot water, after which the 
Paris green is stii'red in, and the remainder of the water added. 
This is said to be of value in protecting trees from borers, but 
the applications may cause serious injury, and the remedy should 
be used cautiously. The mixtin-e may also be used upon foliage, 
in which case dilute with about 15 gallons of water. 

Grison Liquid; Eau Grison; Sulphur and Lime Mix- 
tup.e. — For the original fornmla of this liquid, see page 10. 
Tt is at present commonly made by using 

Flowers of sulphur 3 pounds. 

Quicklime 3 " 

Water 6 gallons. 

These should be boiled until the amount of liquid is reduced 
to 2 gallons. Tt should then be allowed to settle, and the clear 
liquid be drawn oif and tightly corked in bottles. Dilute with 
100 parts of water before using. The preparation is particu- 
larly valuable in treating the European mildew of the grape, 
and also for use against various mildews which attack plants 
grown under glass. See, also, Lime Sulphide. 

Gypsine. See Arsenate of Lead. 



148 The Spraying of Plants. 

Hellebore ; White Hellebore ; European Hellebore ; 
Veratrum album. — The roots of this plant and also of 
Veratrum viride, American hellebore, when ground into a pow- 
der possess considerable insecticidal value. The powder is of a 
light yellowish-brown color, and possesses an odor which is not 
wholly disagreeable. The active principle of the root, known as 
Jervine, is a very powerful alkaloid. It generally destroys 
an insect by being eaten with the food, but it appears 
probable that it also possesses a certain value when it merely 
comes in contact with the insect's body. Hellebore is much 
less poisonous than the arsenical compounds, and it also soon 
loses its strength when exposed to the air. For these reasons it 
should be preferred to the mineral poisons when the plants to be 
treated are bearing products which are nearly ready for market, 
as ripening currants, or heading cabbages. If properly applied, 
it is very effective in destroying chewing insects, and more than 
two applications are rarely necessary. Only the fresh powder 
should be used. It may be applied either in dry form or when 
mixed with water. When used in the form of a dry powder, it 
is generally applied pure, but may be successfully diluted with 
once or twice its bulk of plaster, lime, or flour, the last causing 
it to adhere more firmly to the foliage. In cases where the 
insect does not yield readily to treatment, applications of the 
pure powder may be advisable. The powder should be sifted 
uniformly upon the foliage. 

When used in water the following formula may be success- 
fully employed : 

Hellebore (fresh) 1 ounce. 

Water 3 gallons. 

Some recommend the addition of an ounce of glue to the 
above mixture, or a small amount of flour, in order to render it 
more adhesive ; yet for general practice such additions are 
scarcely necessary. The use of one ounce of powdered soapstone 
with the mixture of hellebore- and water has also been recom- 
mended as possessing especial value. The cost of good hellebore 
varies from twelve to twenty-five cents per pound. 

Hot Water. See Water. 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas; HCN. — D. W. Coquillet was 
the first to suggest and use this gas for the destruction of scale 



Materials and Formulas. 



149 



insects. His experiments began in September, 1880, in the 
orange grove of J. W. Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, Cal. Its 
use has been followed by such good results that all other gases 
have been abandoned in treating these pests. The gas is pre- 
pared by using 

Cyanide of potassium, 60 per cent 1 ounce. 

Commercial sulphuric acid 1 fluid ounce. 

Water 3 ** ounces. 

Potassium cyanide of 90 per cent has also given excellent 
results. The water is iirst placed in an open, glazed vessel, 
and then the acid is added. When the parts to be treated are 
all covered, the diluted acid is placed under the tent, the cya- 
nide of potassium is dropped in, and the tent immediately 
closed. The gas is exceedingly poisonous, and should not be 
inhaled. The amount formed with the above materials is sufti- 
cient for a confined space containing 150 cubic feet. It is safer 
to use the gas upon dormant trees, and during cool weather or at 
night, since trees are more easily injured during a high tempera- 
ture. The treated parts should remain covered about an hour. 

*' The following table, giving height of trees and the propor- 
tions of chemicals and water, will be found suitable for districts 
in the interior or beyond ten miles in a direct line from the sea- 
coast : 



Height of Tree 
— Feet. 


Diameter 
through Foli- 
age — Feet. 


Water — Fluid 
Ounces. 


Sulphuric Acid 
— Fluid Ounces. 


Cyanide of 

Potassium — 

Ounces. 


G 


4 


2 


1 


1 


8 


6 


4 


2 


2 


10 


8 


6 


3 


3 


12 


10 


10 


5 


5 


12 


14 


14 


7 


7 


14 


14 


16 


8 


8 


16 


16 


18 


9 


9 


18 


16 


20 


10 


10 


20 


16 


22 


11 


11 


22 


18 


24 


12 


12 


24 


20 


26 


13 


13 


26 


20 


27 


131 


13^ 


30 


20 


28 


14 


14 



160 The Spraymg of Plants. 

" One would suppose that an [orange] tree having a dense 
foliage would fill up the space within the tent and require less 
gas to be effective. But the cold surface of the leaves con- 
denses the gas, and fumigators find that a slightly heavier 
charge of chemicals is necessary for such a tree, and where the 
foliage is scant a less amount than is given in the table will 
answer. Some orchardists and fumigators consider that the 
work has not been effective unless some of the leaves or tender 
twigs have been injured. This is not necessary, for in our 
early experiments we have treated trees and killed the scale 
without even injuring the most tender twig or blossom. As 
the trees recover very quickly, even when seriously scorched, a 
slight burning is no detriment and is evidence that the work 
has been effective, except in the case of ' black scale ' (Lecanium 
Olece), during the early summer when the eggs are under the 
females. The proper time to fumigate for this scale is during 
the fall or early winter, when they are in the larva state." ^ 

"In order to make the canvas used for fumigation perfectly 
air-tight, to prevent the gas escaping, the tents have been 
treated with a light coat of boiled linseed oil. The great 
objection to the oil has been that it had a tendency to stiffen 
the canvas and add considerably to its weight, so a cheaper 
and more flexible preparation was sought. The following 
mixture, used by Commissioner Scott, of Los Angeles County, 
[Cal.] during the past season, made the tents gas-tight and 
left the canvas soft and pliable. The chief essential ingredient 
is a supply of common prickly-pear cactus (Opimtia Engebnanni) 
that grows in abundance in the southern counties of the state. 
It is the flat-leaf species, and parties living in sections to which 
it is not indigenous could have it sent in boxes. To make the 
cactus extract, chop up enough cactus to fill a barrel two-thirds 
full, then fill up the barrel with cold water. It should stand 
for twenty-four hours, when it will be ready for use. Do not 
prepare more than is required for immediate use, otherwise it 
will sour and become worthless. Stir well, then strain ten gallons 
of the liquid into another tub or barrel ; dissolve two pounds of 
common glue and add to the cactus extract, with sufficient 
yellow ochre or Venetian red to give it a good body. After 
thoroughly mixing the ingredients, it is ready for use. Both 

1 Craw, California State Bd. of Ilort. 1S94, Bull. 68, IS. 



Materials and Formulas. 151 

sides of the canvas should be j^ainted, and the dressing well 
rubbed into the fiber with a flat jiaint-brush. If oil is used, 
the canvas should be spread out and thoroughly dried before it 
is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous com- 
bustion. When dry there is no danger from this."^ 

Iron Chloride (probably Ferrous Chloride, FeClo). — 
This material has been successfully used in checking certain 
coffee diseases, and its use appears to be restricted almost 
entirely to this plant. Very dilute solutions were applied, and 
these proved to be exceedingly adhesive. The remedy is at 
present little known. 

Ikon Sulphate ; Copperas ; Green Vitriol ; FeSO^. — 
Copperas is formed by the union of sulphuric acid and iron. 
It is a green crystalline substance, and when finely broken up it 
bears a certain resemblance to granulated copper sulphate, and 
as it is much cheaper than the latter, it has been used as a 
means of adulterating the copper salt. Iron sulphate dissolves 
readily in water. The ferrocyanide of potassium may be used 
as a means of detecting the presence of this compound. This 
test gives a reddish-hrown precipitate with a concentrated solu- 
tion of copper sulphate, but with a dilute solution it merely 
gives the same color to the liquid, without the formation of a 
precipitate. AVith the sulphate of iron, the test forms a deep 
blue precipitate, very easily distinguished. If there is any ques- 
tion as to the purity of copper sulphate, this test may easily be 
used and the adulteration detected, provided the sulphate of 
iron has been used as an adulterant. 

Iron sulphate is of no practical value as an insecticide, and 
its use as a fungicide is very limited. Iron is not nearly so 
efficient in this respect as copper is, so the latter is almost 
invariably preferred except when the plants to be treated are 
dormant. The iron salt may then be used as follows : 

Iron sulphate 4-8 pounds. 

Water 1 gallon. 

All parts should be thoroughly treated w^th this solution; 
but the value of the operation has, in most cases, still to be 
determined. 

1 Craw, California State Bd. of Hort. 1894, Bull. 68, 20. 



152 The Spraying of Plants. 

Against anthracnose of the grape the following application 
has shown itself to be of great value, and it is regularly used 
by European vineyardists : 

Water (hot) - 100 parts. 

Iron sulphate, as much as the water will dis- 
solve. 
Sulphuric acid 1 part. 

Great care should be exercised in using this preparation, as 
it is exceedingly caustic and will injure machinery, clothes, and 
nearly everything with which it conies in contact. It is gener- 
ally applied with a swab made by tying rags about the end of 
a stick. Dormant vines are uninjured by the treatment. 

Johnson's Mixture; Copper Sulphate and Ammonium 
Carbonate Mixture. — This preparation is almost identical 
with the moditied eau celeste, ammonium sulphate being formed 
by the reactions instead of sodium sulphate. The former is 
injurious to foliage, and for this reason the mixture never has 
been used to any extent. It contains dissolved copper carbon- 
ate, as does the ammonia solution of the same compound, and 
that fungicide should be consulted in connection with John- 
son's mixture. 

Copper sulphate 8 ounces. 

Ammonium carbonate 1 pound. 

Dissolve in a pail of warm water and then dilute with 

Water 25 gallons. 

Kerosene; Coal Oil; (Petroleum). — Kerosene has been 
used to destroy insects almost from the time of its first general 
introduction for illuminating purposes. It was originally used 
in two ways: first, when pure, in which case it was carefully 
used and applied as much as possible only to the insects to be 
destroyed; and second, when mixed with water, generally at 
the rate of 1 gill to 1 or 2 gallons of water. Since the oil is 
lighter than water, such mixtures were imperfect, and a certain 
amount of skill was required to obtain a mixture sufficiently 
uniform to prevent injury to the foliage. A small hand-syringe 
was the instrument generally employed, but now special ma- 
chinery has been devised for the same purpose. Such appli- 



Materials and Formulas. 153 

cations are still made, but to a limited extent. Most plants 
are easily injured by the oil. Coleus, grape, peach, pea, and 
eggplant appear to suffer less than others. Paraffine, a closely 
related product, nuiy be used at the rate of a wineglassful to 
a watering-can of water, the mixture being sprayed upon the 
insects. 

Pure kerosene will destroy trees and branches which are sev- 
eral years old if a sufficient amount of the oil be applied. The 
beneficial results of such treatment are open to doubt, and the 
practice can hardly be advised except in isolated cases, when 
some unusual danger is feared. Howard has found that the oil 
may be used to advantage in the destruction of the mosquito. 
These breed in stagnant water, such as is commonly found 
in pools, etc., and by the use of 1 ounce of oil to 15 square 
feet of water surface, a film is formed which is very effectual 
in destroying all forms of aquatic insect life. 

Kerosene and Milk Emulsions. — By emulsifying kero- 
sene with some other material a very uniform dilution of the 
oil may be obtained, and it may be used of any desired strength. 
Milk has been very extensively used as an emulsifying agent, 
and it possesses particular value in those regions in which it is 
difficult to obtain soft water, hard water being unsuited to 
assist in making emulsion when soap is used instead of milk. 

Kerosene and Condensed Milk Emulsion. — 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Condensed milk 3 pints. 

Water 6 " 

It is unnecessary to heat the ingredients, but they may be 
mixed and immediately churned or agitated by means of a 
force-pump until a perfect emulsion is obtained. 

Kerosene and Sour Milk Emulsion. — 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Sour milk 1 gallon. 

These liquids should be agitated in the same manner as the 
preceding. The mixture will soon assume a thick buttery con- 
sistency, and wdien the entire nuiss is in this condition the oil is 
properly emulsified. The addition of a little vinegar is said to 
hasten the process, especially if the milk is sweet instead of 



154 The Spraying of Plants. 

sour. If sweet milk is used, the emulsiou is not formed so 
readily, but in other respects the two are equally valuable. If 
the applications are not to be made immediately, it is better to 
put the concentrated emulsion in air-tight jars until wanted, 
otherwise fermentation will take place, and after a week or 
more the preparation will be of little value. 

These emulsions should be diluted fifteen or twenty times 
with water, depending upon the insect to be destroyed and the 
foliage to be treated. 

Kerosene and Soap Emulsions. — Soap is very generally 
preferred to milk for emulsifying kerosene and other oils. 
Hard soap is easily obtained, and is therefore more commonly 
used. Whale-oil soap is said to be the best for this purpose. 
If soft soap is at hand, it may be used as well as the hard soaps, 
since the actions of the two are practically identical. One quart 
of soft soap is considered to be the equivalent of one-fourth pound 
hard soap. 

Cook's Soft Soap Emulsion. — "Dissolve one quart of soft 
soap in two quarts of boiling water. Remove from the fire, 
and, while still boiling hot, add one pint of kerosene and im- 
mediately agitate with the pump as described above. In two 
or three minutes the emulsion will be perfect. This should 
be diluted by adding an equal amount of w^ater, when it 
is ready for use. This always emulsifies readily with hard or 
soft water ; always remains permanent, for years even ; and is 
very easily diluted, even in the coldest weather, and without 
any heating. In this last respect it has no equal, so far as we 
have experimented. The objections to it are : we cannot 
always procure the soft soap, though many farmers make it, 
and it is generally to be found in our markets ; it occasionally 
injures the foliage, probably owing to the caustic properties of 
the soap. We have used this freely for years and never saw 
any injury till the past season. In case of any such trouble we 
may use only half the amount of soap — one pint instead of one 
quart." The emulsion should be diluted so that about one- 
fifteenth of the liquid is kerosene, the amount varying under 
different circumstances. 

Cook's Hard Soap Emulsion. — " Dissolve one-fourth pound of 
hard soap, Ivory, Babbitt, Jaxon, or whale-oil, etc., in two 
quarts of water, add, as before, one pint of kerosene oil, and 



Materials and Formulas. 155 

pump the mixture back into itself while hot. This always 
emulsifies at once, and is permanent with hard as well as soft 
water. This is diluted with twice its bulk of water before use. 
The objection to a large amount of water sinks before the fact 
that this secures a sure and permanent emulsion, even though 
diluted with hard water. This also becomes, with certain 
soaps, lumpy and stringy when cold, so that it cannot be 
readily diluted with cold water unless first heated. Yet this is 
true with all hard soap emulsions in case of certain soaps. We 
can, however, always dilute easily if we do so at once before the 
emulsion is cold, and we can also do the same either by heating 
an emulsion or diluent, no matter how long we wait." (Page 81). 
Hubbard-Riley Kerosene Emulsion. — 

Hard soap I pound . 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Boiling soft water 1 gallon. 

The soap should first be dissolved in the boiling water, after 
which the kerosene is added, and the two churned for five or ten 
minutes. One essential condition of success in making this 
emulsion is that the liquids should be as warm as possible. My 
own practice has been to heat the two after the kerosene has 
been added, taking care that the oil did not catch fire. It is 
also necessary that the water be as soft as possible, for if much 
mineral matter is present the emulsion will not be permanent, 
and the oil will soon sej)arate and rise to the surface. With 
very hard water it is almost impossible to obtain a good emul- 
sion. 

If these conditions are all fulfilled, however, this emulsion is 
an excellent one, as the amount of kerosene used is large, and 
in other respects the preparation is easily handled. It should 
be diluted with from 4 to 20 parts of water before being ap- 
plied, hard water being again avoided. When diluted with 4 
parts of water, the emulsion contains about 29 per cent of kero- 
sene ; when diluted with 20 parts of w^ater it contains nearly 
9 per cent of the oil. 

Kerosene Emulsion and Arsenites. — The attempt has 
frequently been made to obtain a uniform mixture of these two 
materials, but with only partial success. The results have not 
been satisfactory, and the use of such a mixture cannot be ad- 



156 The Sprayiyig of Plants. 

vised since the arsenicals and a certain amount of the emiilsion 
appear to separate in the form of clots that adhere with surpris- 
ing firmness to the sides of the vessel in which the preparation 
is made, and render its use practically impossible. 

Kerosene Emulsion and Balsam of Fir. — The addi- 
tion of two ounces of fir balsam to the Hubbard-Riley emul- 
sion is said to increase its efficiency and also its adhesive 
properties. 

One-half pint of turpentine may be used for the same pur- 
pose. 

Kerosene Emulsion and Bordeaux jMixture. — A mix- 
ture between these two preparations may be obtained without 
much difficulty, but the fungicide should be made with as little 
lime as possible. For this purpose, employ the ferrocyanide 
of potassium test. Applications of the mixture can scarcely be 
advised, however, since both fungicide and insecticide appear to 
lose a certain degree of their efficiency, since such even distribu- 
tion on the foliage cannot be obtained as when the two are 
applied separately. 

Kerosene-Pyrethrum Emulsion. — This emulsion is made 
in the same manner as the preceding ones, but pure kerosene 
is not used. A decoction of pyrethrum is made by filtering 
1 gallon of the oil through 2i pounds of the powder, and this 
decoction is then treated like pure kerosene. It is little known. 

Lead Arsenate. See Arsenate of Lead. 

Lime. — Quicklime is the most valuable form of the metal 
calcium to be used in spraying, although the compound does 
not remain in this form. Quicklime is the oxide of calcium, 
CaO. When water is added to it, there is formed the hydrate 
of lime, or calcium hydroxide, Ca(0H)2, or water-slaked lime, 
as it is more commonly called. When exposed to air, quicklime 
sooner or later combines with carbonic acid gas and is thus 
converted into the carbonate of lime, or air-slaked lime, CaCOg ; 
this is the same, chemically, as limestone, or chalk. 

The milk of lime is formed by slaking quicklime in w^ater. 
It possesses little value when used alone, either for combating 
insects or fungi, but is extensively used to avert the caustic 
action of other preparations. If sprayed upon plants, it may be 
found desirable to strain out the coarser particles to prevent 
clogging the machinery. Air-slaked lime has been used in 



Materials and Formulas. 157 

making the Bordeaux mixture, but in that case twice as much 
lime shouhl be used as called for by the formulas in which 
quicklime is mentioned. ^ 

The action of lime upon foliage has been studied by Cuboni.'^ 
When this material was first used by the Italians, their endeavor 
was to cover the grape foliage with a thick and uniform layer. 
The work of Cuboni shows that light acts upon the chlorophyll 
under the treated parts in a perfectly normal manner, for treated 
leaves had a coefficient of transpiration of 7 grams per square 
centimeter in one hour, while non-treated leaves, under the 
same conditions, had a coefficient of 7.25 grams, a very insig- 
nificant difference. It would thus appear that no injurious 
influence of this nature need be feared from applications of 
lime or of the Bordeaux mixture. 

Quicklime may be applied alone as follows : 

Lime ^-2 pecks. 

Water 40 gallons. 

This formula allows of much modification, but the thicker 
the mixture is made the more difficult it is to apply. Its value 
as a fungicide rests largely in the mechanical action of the lime ; 
it forms a coating over the parts treated, so that the germinating 
sjiore cannot penetrate to the leaf tissue. In other resj)ects its 
effect is but slight. 

Air-slaked lime is of greater value as an insecticide when used 
dry, than when mixed with water. In the dry condition, it is 
effective in destroying snails, slugs, and the larvae of some insects, 
as the cherry slug. It may also be used as a diluent of poison- 
ous powders, as hellebore, arsenites, etc. It causes the death of 
angleworms, whether used dry or with water, and flower pots 
may easily be rid of them by the use of this material, a satu- 
rated solution containing sufficient quantities for the purpose. 

Quicklime can be bought for GO cents to -11.50 per barrel. 

Lime, Salt, and Sulphur Wash. — A mixture similar to 
the following was originally used in California as a sheep-dip, 
but as fruit trees began to drive out the sheep, the applications 
of the compound were transferred to the trees, and thus it has 
been very generally used, and has proved to be of value in the 

1 See, also, Millardet et Gayon, Jour, d ''Ag. Prat. 1888, May 17, 693 et ,seq. 

2 Cited by Viala, " Les Maladies de la Vigne," 1893, 118. 



158 The Spraijlng of Plants. 

orchards as well as on the sheep. It is used against insects and 
fungi. 

Lime (unslaked) 25-40 pounds. 

Salt 15 

Sulphur 20 

Water 00 gallons. 

To mix the above, take 10 pounds of lime, 20 pounds of sul- 
phur, and 20 gallons of water. Boil until the sulphur is thor- 
oughly dissolved. Take the remainder — 15 pounds of lime and 
15 pounds of salt — slake and add enough of water to make the 
whole 60 gallons. Strain, and spray on the trees when milk- 
warm, or somewhat warmer. This can be applied when the 
foliage is oft" the tree, and will have no injurious effects on the 
fruit-buds or on the tree itself. 

Lime Sulphide ; Sulphide of Lime ; CaS. — This sub- 
stance is made by boiling together sulphur and quicklime, using 
equal parts of each, until the liquid assumes a reddish yellow 
color. Even twice the amount of sulphur may be used with 
the above quantity of lime, and an excellent article v^ill still be 
produced. Lime sulphide is of a white color, the compound 
being CaS. As the boiling is continued, a yellow color appears, 
caused by the formation of the bisulphide of lime, CaSa- Upon 
prolonged boiling the yellow is replaced by an orange-red, which 
is the color of a third compound, the pentasulphide of lime, 
CaSg. This is particularly rich in sulphur. The most popu- 
lar method of using lime sulphide is described under Grison 
Liquid, which see. The compound is not a very energetic 
fungicide, but is valuable in treating surface mildews, such as 
the oidium of the grape. It is also of value in controlling 
mildew upon plants grown under glass, such as the peach, cu- 
cumber, rose, etc. With few exceptions, however, the copper 
compounds are to be preferred. 

Linseed Oil Emulsion. — This remedy has been recom- 
mended by S. T. Maynard for the destruction of the San Jose 
scale insect, it having proved to be very efficient in controlling 
various scale insects found upon cacti, English ivy, rose, apple, 
pear, ash, thorn, and willow. 

Hard soap \ pound. 

Boiling water, enough to dissolve the soap. 
Linseed oil 1 gallon. 



Materials and Formulas. 159 

Chum thoroughly until a pasty emulsion is formed. Dilute 
with from 12 to 24 gallons of water. The remedy has not yet 
been thoroughly tested. 

Liver of Sulphur. See Potassium Sulphide. 

London Purple. See under Arsenite of Lime. 

Lye. — The success following the use of soaps for destroying 
insects has lead to treatments of lye for the same purpose. It 
may be used as follows : 

Concentrated lye 1 iDound. 

Water 3 gallons. 

One and one-fourth pounds of potash may be used in place 
of the lye. These solutions are very caustic, and should only 
be used upon dormant wood. They are especially useful in 
destroying scale insects, but soft-bodied insects may also be 
exterminated by using : 

Concentrated lye 1 pound. 

Water 40 gallons. 

It is well to wash this solution from delicate foliage in the 
course of half an hour, to prevent any injury which might 
follow if the insecticide were allowed to remain. 

Lye and Sulphur Wash. — 

Concentrated lye 1 pound. 

(Potash I4 pounds.) 

Sulphur 1| pounds. 

Water 3 gallons. 

This is recommended for the destruction of scale insects, but 
should be used only upon dormant wood. 
Lye and Whale-oil Soap Wash. — 

(a) Concentrated lye 1 pound. 

Water 1 gallon. 

Sulphur 1^ pounds. 

Boil until all the ingredients are dissolved. 

(6) Whale-oil soap 14 pounds. 

Water 54 gallons. 



160 The Spraying of Plants. 

When the soap is dissolved, unite solutions (a) and {h), and 
boil for a short time. The remedy is particularly valuable in 
treating scale insects just as they hatch in spring. It is more 
effective if used warm, at a temperature of 130° F., taking care 
to reach as many insects as possible. 

Mercuric Chloride; Corrosive Sublimate; HoCLg. — 
It is made by subliming a mixture of mercuric sulphate and 
common salt, the resulting product being one of the deadliest 
poisons. Recommendations for its use as an insecticide are 
occasionally advanced, but the poison has such a caustic action 
upon foliage, that it cannot be used with safet3^ 

It possesses some value as a fungicide, however, especially in 
preventing scab upon potatoes. For this purpose use : 

Corrosive sublimate 2 ounces. 

Water 16 gallons. 

Scabby seed potatoes should be soaked in this solution for 
about an hour and a half before planting. 
Mercuric Chloride Wash. — 

Corrosive sublimate 1 ounce. 

Soft soap 10 gallons. 

Alcohol or Avood spirit 1 pint. 

Water, sufficient to make a stiff jiaiut. 

The corrosive sublimate should first be dissolved in the alco- 
hol, and this solution then added to the soap. The wash is 
used upon the bases of apple trees to prevent the entrance of 
borers, and for this purpose it has been highly recommended. 

Mixture No. 5 {of the U. S. Departmod of Agrienllure). — 

Ammoniated copper sulphate 1 part. 

Ammonium carbonate 1 " 

Twelve ounces of the mixture should be dissolved in 22 
gallons of water, when it is ready for immediate use. A more 
concentrated solution, consisting of 1 pound to 25 gallons of 
water, has also been recommended. The fungicide has not 
been generally adopted, as it frequently causes injury to foliage. 
Before being dissolved, the mixture should be kept in air-tight 
receptacles, or its composition will change. 

Modified Eau Celeste. — This well-known fungicide is one 
of the best now in use. In composition it is practically the 



Materials and Formulas. 161 

same as the ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate, since this 
compound is first formed, and is then dissolved by ammonia. 
A solution of sodium sulphate is also present, but this is scarcely 
objectionable. The freshly precipitated carbonate of copper is 
much more easily dissolved by ammonia than the dry article is, 
and in this respect the preparation is superior to the common 
ammoniacal solution. But there is also present a certain amount 
of the sulphate of soda, yet, if properly diluted, no injury should 
result from this source. Modified eau celeste is readily prepared 
as follows : 

Copper sulphate 2 pounds. 

Sal- soda , 2h. " 

Dissolve these separately with a small quantity of water and 
slowly unite them. When chemical action has stopped add 

Ammonia, 26^ Beaume 1 quart. 

Or ammonia, 22^ Beaume 3 quarts. 

This concentrated solution should be diluted before an appli- 
cation is made, with from 50 to 100 gallons of water, the last 
being probably none too much. The fungicide is cheap and effect- 
ive. The price of sal-soda varies from 1\ to 5 cents per pound. 

Molasses. See Sugar. 

Oil. — None of the oils is used in a pure form, with the ex- 
ception of kerosene; a few others are occasionally applied in 
connection with some other substance. 

Oil and Alkali Wash. — 

1. Whale-oil 1^ gallons. 

Sal-soda 25 pounds. 

Water 25 gallons. 

The sal-soda is first dissolved in the boiling water, after 
which the oil is added. Apply when cooled to 130°. Use 
during winter for scale insects. 

2. Concentrated lye (American, 80 per cent) ... 1 pound. 

Potash i " 

Water 6 gallons. 

In place of the lye, one can use | pound of Greenbank pow- 
dered caustic soda, of 08 per cent ; or 1 pound of solid caustic 

M 



162 The Spraying of Plants. 

soda, of 76 per cent ; or 1^ pounds of solid caustic soda, of 63 
per cent. This is used in tlie same way and for the same pur- 
pose as No. 1. 

Oregon Wash. — The Oregon wash is practically the same 
as the California lime, salt, and sulphur wash, with the excep- 
tion that sulphate of copper is substituted for salt. The for- 
mula, as given by Henry E. Dosch, of the Oregon State 
Board of Horticulture, is as follows : 

''Place 100 pounds of sulphur and 80 pounds of lime in a 
boiler with 100 gallons of water, and boil slowly until the 
sulphur is dissolved. Dissolve 8 pounds of sulphate of copper 
in hot water, add to 20 pounds of slaked lime, and mix the 
whole together. When ready to spray, take 1 pound of the 
mixture and 2i gallons of hot water, for winter use, applying 
lukewarm ; 1 pound of the mixture to 8 or 10 gallons of water 
for summer spray. The water in the mixture will boil away, 
leaving a solid mass, which, however, dissolves readily when 
hot water is added for spraying." 

Paraifine. See Kerosene. 

Paris Green. See page 121. 

Patent Insecticides. — The Division of Entomology of the 
United States Department of Agriculture made an exhibit at 
the Columbian Exposition, in 1803, of forty-two different 
patented insecticides ; and many more exist. Some possess 
value, while others are positively unsafe to handle. As a rule, 
it is better and cheaper for each grower to prepare the insecti- 
cides and also the fungicides which are to be applied, since then 
there can be no doubt as to their composition. 

Persian Insect Powder. See Pyrethrum. 

Precipitated Carbonate of Copper. See Copper Car- 
bonate. 

Podechard's Pow^der. — 

Copper sulphate 45 pounds. 

Water, enough to dissolve. 

Lime, air-slaked 225 " 

Ashes 30 " 

Flowers of sulphur 20 " 

The copper sulphate solution should be poured upon the lime, 
which in turn must be surrounded by the ashes to keep the 



Materials and Formulas. 163 

liquid within bounds. After standing twenty-four hours the 
sulphur should be added, and then all the ingredients thoroughly 
mixed together. The mixture, when dry, should be passed 
through a sieve having eight meshes to the inch, when it is 
ready to apply. It has been recommended for various fungous 
diseases, but is not much used. 

Potash; Potassium. — Various compounds of potash have 
been recommended for the destruction of insects, but they are 
not always effective, whether aj)plied at the root or on the 
foliage. 

Kainit 1 ounce. 

Water 1 pint. 

Other forms may be used in the same manner, but foliage is 
frequently injured. 
Potash Soap. — 

Concentrated lye 1 pound. 

Cotton-seed oil 3 pints. 

Soft water 3 gallons. 

Boil the lye in water until dissolved, then add the oil and 
boil for two hours, replacing evaporated water with hot water 
from time to time. Use 1 pound of this soap to 8 or 10 gallons 
(?f water on lice-infested plants or trees, and wash the trunks 
and branches with a stiff brush. 

Potassium Sulphide; Sulphuret of Potassium; Liver 
OF Sulphur; K^S. — This substance is used when dissolved 
in water at the rate of ^ to 1 ounce in 1 gallon of water. The 
solution soon loses its strength, so should be made only just 
before using. It possesses considerable value in the treatment 
of certain fungous diseases, as gooseberry mildew, but is not so 
energetic as the copper compounds. Cost, fifteen to twenty-five 
cents per pound. 

Pyrethrum; Buhach; Dalmatian Insect Pow^der; Per- 
sian Insect Powder. — This powder is obtained from plants 
of the genus Pyrethrum. It owes its value to the presence of 
an oil which is exceedingh' poisonous to most insects, but appar- 
ently harmless to the higher animals. The oil acts upon the 
insect only when in contact with it, in the same manner as 



164 The Spraying of Plants. 

kerosene and similar insecticides. The oil is particularly abun- 
dant in the flower-heads just before they open, and the plant is 
best cut at this time. The stems also are used, and they may 
form about one-third of the mass to be ground into powder. 
The oil is very volatile, so the dried plants should not be exposed 
to the rays of the sun, to a high temperature, nor to moisture. 
After being dried, they should be placed in a receptacle which 
can be tightly closed; and it is imperative that the powder be so 
treated, else it will quickly lose its strength. 

There are two species of Pyrethrum which furnish the bulk 
of the commercial articles. P. roseiun is the plant that is 
native to the province of Transcaucasia, and from it is obtained 
the form sold as Persian insect powder. P. cinerarioifolium, 
however, is native to Dalmatia, and Dalmatian insect powder 
is the product derived from this plant. Buhach is obtained 
from a cultivated form of the same species. This plant is the 
one mostly grown in California, and for this reason Buhach is 
the most reliable powder to use. The insecticidal value of the 
plant does not appear to diminish under cultivation, and, as 
Buhach is made in this country, it is more apt to be fresh. 
Both species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and it is prob- 
able that they have equally valuable insecticidal proi:)erties. 

Pyrethrum can be used in a great variety of ways, of which 
the following are the most important : ^ 

"1. In solution. — One ounce to 3 gallons of water. 

"2. Dry, without dilution. — In this form it is excellent for 
thrips and lice on roses and other bushes. Apply when the 
bush is wet. Useful for aphis on house plants. 

" 3. Dry, with dilution. — Diluted with flour or any light and 
fine powder. The poison may be used in the proportion of 1 
part to from 6 to 30 of the diluent. 

<' 4. In fumigation. — It may be scattered directly upon coals, 
or made into small balls by wetting and moulding with the 
hands, and then set upon coals. This is a desirable way of 
dealing with mosquitoes and flies. 

" 5. In alcohol. — (1) Put 1 part of pyrethrum (buhach) and 
4 parts alcohol, by weight, in any tight vessel. Shake occa- 
sionally, and after eight days filter. Apply with an atomizer. 
Excellent for greenhouse pests. For some plants it needs to be 

1 Bailey, " Horticulturist's Itulc-lJook," third edition, 1S95, 10, 11. 



Materials and Formulas. 165 

diluted a little. (2) Dissolve about 4 ouuces of powder in 1 
gill of alcohol, and add 12 gallons of water. 

" 6. Decoction. — Whole flower-heads are treated to boiling 
water, and the liquid is covered to prevent evaporation. Boiling 
the liquid destroys its value. 

" 7. Water extract. — Pour 2 quarts hot water through about 
a half-pound of pyrethruni, held in a coarse bag, and then add 
cold water enough to make 2 gallons, and it is well to stir in 
the powder itself. For aphis and cabbage worms. It will keep 
but a few days. Or the extract can be made as follows : Make 
a paste of 2 tablespoon fuls of pyrethrum by adding water. 
Stir this into 2 gallons of water, and apply with a line nozzle. 
This is recommended for the rose-chafer. 

"8. Pijretliro-kerosene emulsion. — See under Kerosene-Py- 
KETHRUM Emulsion." 

The cost of pyrethrum varies from twenty to nearly seventy- 
five cents per pound. 

Quassia. — The wood of Picrcena (or Picrasma) excelsa con- 
tains a principle which is fatal to many insects when brought in 
contact with them. The wood has an extremely bitter taste, 
and for this reason it has been supposed that seeds placed in 
water in which the wood had been soaked would be protected 
from birds and vermin. Its value for this purpose is, however, 
doubtful. Quassia wood is generally sold after having been 
cut into " chips," and it is commonly used as follows : 

Quassia chips 1 pound. 

Water 8 gallons. 

Boil until reduced to 6 gallons. 

Another formula has been recommended which is probably 
more effective than the preceding : 

Quassia chips \ pound. 

Water 1 gallon. 

The chips are boiled in the water for about fifteen minutes ; 
the liquid should then be strained, and to the solution is added 

Soft soap \ pound. 

When thoroughly mixed, the liquid is ready for use. This 
insecticide is not very energetic, but possesses a certain value in 



166 Thr Sjrmyimj of Plants. 

(l(isiroyiiig phiiit \\ca\. (^iiasHia (Oiips ;ii-<^ woilli IVom six lo i(Mi 
cents p(M- poiind. 

QUyVSSIA (!|1I1',S AND Wll ALK-Ol I- SOAI'. — 

Qnassiii cliiiJS H pounds. 

WliitkM)il Hoap 7 '* 

Wilier \00 gallons. 

"Soak tlie chips twelve; iioiiis in .S gallons of walcr, or if hot 
water is used, less tiine will Ix; rcipiircd. Dissolve; tiu; soap 
by hoiiiiiL;' in suflicieni wattu" to cov(;r it; strain the; extracts 
Iroin the (piassia and add tiu; two ingi'cdients together. Stir 
thoroughly and dihile to make 100 gallons. 

"I'his solution is used sncccssrully ann^ng tin; hop growers 
for ext(!iininating ho[» lice in tht; largi; fndds. It is not injurious 
to foliagf!. . . . For some species of aphis [npon oilier plants] 
a strong(;r solution may have; to Ix; us(!<l, and in such cases dilute 
only to HO gallons instttad ol' 100." ' 

QuioKi.iMK. See J^ime. 

IIkhin SoAI'. — 

Kosiii 2 poundH. 

Caustic soda I pound. 

Tallow 1 " 

Dissolve the caustic soda in 1!, gallons of water. In this, 
dissolve the r(;sin and tallow with modcu-atc li(;at, adding water 
to mak(! 22 pints of hrown, thick soap. For us(! dilute with 
44 gallons of watei- ami aj)ply as a spray. It is iiscmI as a sum- 
mer wash to (histroy instuits. 

J^KSiN Wasiiks. — 'IMi<; history of these washes has hecjii dis- 
cussed on page 't^t). Their action is of two kinds. Some insects 
are kilLid when these wasluis c(jme in contact with their l)odi(;s, 
an action similar to that of the k(!rosene emulsions, hut scale 
insects are often so well prote(;l,ed that th(!y <!annot he <lire(;tly 
reached hy the applications. The action of th(! r(!sin vvash<!S is 
then to form a cov(;ring over the ins<;ct so that both air and 
moisture will he (;xclu(h!d. In this mann(;i' the ])(;st is lit(;rally 
smothered to death. 'J'hesc; washes arc; particularly valuable in 
<lestroyingHcal(! insijcts. In tin; Fast, wlnuc such inse(d,s a,re hiSS 
troubles(jme, kerosene emulsion is m(jr(; connnonly iccommended, 

1 Waishington Htate Bourd ,,/ Hi,, I. 'lid BlennlnL Itept. 181>8 i)J, 71. 



Materials and Formulas. 167 

and it may be that the insects are also more easily treated here. 
But in California and in the South, the resin solutions are very 
highly valued, as they appear to be more efficient than those 
containing kerosene. 

Applications are made to dormant as well as to growing trees. 
In the former case stronger mixtures are used with success, but 
if used during summer, the same ones might cause much dam- 
age. When selecting from the formulas given below, the nature 
of the treatment nmst be kept in mind, to avoid injuring the 
trees. It is advisable to use a covered iron kettle for boiling the 
ingredients of the insecticides. 

Reshi 20 pounds. 

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 5 " 

Fish-oil 21 pints. 

Water to make 100 gahons. 

The first three ingredients should be placed in a large kettle 
and covered with four or five inches of water. Boil for one or 
two hours, or until the liquid has a dark brown color resembling 
coffee. 

The use of a 98 per cent granulated caustic soda shortens the 
required time of boiling. In case this is used, its amount may 
be reduced to o pounds, and 3 pounds of fish-oil should also 
be added. Under such circumstances, these ingredients may be 
boiled a moment with but 15 gallons of water and a stock solu- 
tion thus obtained, which may be diluted at will. (The total 
cost is about five and one-third cents per gallon.) These two 
formulas are very extensively employed in the work of the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

When water is added to the solutions, it should be poured in 
slowly and thoroughly mixed. Dilute as required, in green- 
houses 1-8, or 1-4. For use in summer. 

Resin 40 pounds. 

Caustic soda (98 per cent) 10 " 

Potash 10 " 

Tallow 40 " 

Water to make 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the soda and the potash in about 10 gallons of hot 
water. The resin and the tallow should be heated, and when 
dissolved and thoroughly mixed, pour the two solutions into a 



168 The Spraii'nifi of Phuit^. 

barrel holding 50 gallons, and stir mcU. Allow the mixlnre to 
stand about two hours, when the barrel may be slowly tilled 
with warm water, the contents being continually stirred as the 
water is added. One pint of the preparation ni;iy be used in a 
gallon of warm water. For use in summer. 

Resin 20 pounds. 

Caustic soda <S " 

Fish-oil 1 gallou. 

Water to make 100 callous. 

The caustic soda is lirst dissolved in about Hi gallons of 
water, after which half of the solution is taken out and I he 
resin added to that remaining in the kettle. When all the 
resin is dissolved, the tish-oil is added to it, and the whole 
thoroughly stirred, after which the balance of tlie caustic soda 
solution is added very slowly and boiled for aliont an hour, or 
until it will readily mix with wat<M-. Hsc an iron kettle. For 
use in summer. 

Resiu 17i pounds. 

Soda (00 ijer cent ) 7 " 

Fish-oil ;'. " 

Petroleuui 2 " 

Water 100 gallons. 

JBoil the tirst three ingredients together for I'onr hours in 20 
gallons of water, after wliich the petroleum should be poured in, 
the whole being well stirred. The SO gallons of water may then 
be added, and an emulsion nuide by active agitation. For use 
in summer. 

Kesin H pounds. 

Caustic soda 1 pound. 

Water to make 'J'J >;;ilIoriH. 

Dissolve the caustic soda in about 1 gallon of vv;itcr. When 
dissolved half the solution is taken out, and tlu^ resin \\^\^\ri\ b) 
the remainder and boiled until dissolved, aricr vvhicdi the, l)al- 
ance of the soda solution is added very slowly. 'I'hc mixture is 
then boiled ov(u- a hot tire, being stirred almost constantly ; juid 
when cooked sulliciently it will assimilab^, with cold vv;i,t(!r like 
milk, which it much resend)lHS. Dilute as ubovc^, and apply 
during summer. 



Materials and Formulas. 169 

Simple sokitioii ol" rcisiii: 

Kesiu 2 pounds. 

Crystal lizecl sal-soda 1 pound. 

Water 2 quarts. 

Jioii the Jibovc until a clear brown solution is obtained. This 
is an excellent method of ol)taining a stock solution of resin. 
Tt is as valuable as any soap to increase adhesive properties of 
Bordeaux mixture, and costs nmch less. 

Kesiu 30 pounds. 

Caustic soda (70 per cent) 9 " 

Fish-oil 4i- pints. 

Water 100 gallons. 

Place the Ih'st three ingredients in an iron kettle and cover 
with five or six inches of water. Boil for an hour or two, or 
until the licpiid has a dark l)rown color, after which the re- 
nuiinder of the water may be slowly added. It is not necessary 
tliat all should be immediately used, since the liquid may be 
diluted as w(dl later. For winter use. 

RicsiN Washes and Ausenicals. — Paris green, London 
purple, and even arsenious acid will mix readily with resin 
compounds, especially those which consist of resin, caustic soda, 
and water. The poison may then be used at the same rate as 
in clear water. Arsenious acid has been used in this manner 
upon orange trees at the rate of 1 pound to 300 gallons of the 
wash. 

Salt; Sodium Chloride; NaCl. — Common salt has very 
frecpiently been recommended as an insecticide, and there is 
no doubt that it is capable of killing many insects. But its 
elfective use recpiires such strong solutions that the remedy is 
generally woi-se than the disease, and for this reason it is rarely 
applied. 

Sciikele's Green. See Arsenite of Copper, page 120. 

SciiWEiNFURTii's (Jreen. See ParU Oreeu, page 121. 

SkAWINSKi's (icon SULl'llATE AND SuLPUUKIC AciD SOLU- 
TION. — 

Iron sulphate 110 pounds. 

Sulphuric acid (5.'>'') 1^ pints. 

AVarni water 20 gallons. 



170 ■ The Spraying of Plants. 

The acid should first be poured upon the iron crystals, after 
which the water may be added. This preparation is almost 
identical with one already described under Jiiox Sulphate, 
and it is used for the same purpose. It has shown itself, in 
the hands of Skawinski and others, to be a very efficient remedy 
against grape anthracnose, being applied exclusively to dormant 
wood. 

Skawinski's Powder. — 

Copper sulphate, powdered 22 pounds. 

Alluvial earth, or soot 33 " 

Coal-dust 1G5 " 

Mix thoroughly and apply in the form of a powder. The 
preparation has been successfully applied in Europe for treat- 
ing grape mildews, but is at present little used. 

Snuff. — Fresh snuff is as valuable as other forms of tobacco 
in destroying insects. It may be used dry or as a decoction ; 
for the latter use see Tobacco. When dry it is very service- 
al)le in destroying insects where more energetic measures can- 
not be taken, as in dwelling-rooms and small conservatories. 
The powder should be blown upon the insects. 

Soap. — Probably all soaps are of value as insecticides, and 
they were among the first remedies used. They kill by coming 
in contact with the insect, destroying it directly, as does kero- 
sene, and probably also by closing the breathing pores, and so 
smothering it. Common soap may be used at the rate of 

Soap 1 pound. 

Water 5-8 gallons. 

The proper strength of the preparation varies with the insect 
and the plant to which it is applied. For plant lice, the 
weaker solutions are sufficiently strong, but for mealy-bug and 
similar pests the more concentrated forms are desirable. 

Soap and Arsenttes. — 

Soap 4 pounds. 

Paris green or London purple 4 ounces. 

Lime 4 " 

Water 50 gallons. 

Dissolve the soap in 1 to 2 gallons of hot water, then add 
the poison and the lime. Dilute just before using. This 



Materials and Formulas. 171 

|»r(',|»;i,i;il-ioii (toinliiiics ccri.-uii j»r(>j»(Ml,i(',,s of iliosr; iii,S(;cticido,s 
wiiicli kill l>y coniiici, ;iii<l iliosc; wliicli ;ii'<; liist catoii. It 
|)OHH(!,ss('H v;i.liio lor ;i,ll iiiSiicLs, l)iil, only Hofl-ltodicjl or^jinisnis 
;ir(! overcome, by IIm; soaj). K(;ro,seii(; eimilsioii or ihc resin 
wa.shcs are cornrrionly to bo {mii'avnid. 'Ilia lime is added to 
ilio pnipaniiion to ])i-(!Vont injury. 

SoAr AND FlSII-OlL. — 

J'oImsIi lye J jjouikI. 

J''iH[i-oil :i pints. 

Soil, w.'ilc-r 3 ffalloiiH. 

P'ii-sl, dissolve the lye in ilie water l)y ])oi]iiig, then add the 
oil and l»oil two lioins lon^^cr. Dilute with to 10 gallons of 
wat(!r to ev(!ry pound ol" tli(i sojij) wliicli is foruKMl. TIk; 
mixture is esp(!ciidiy valuable for destroying solt-bodied 
inse('ts. 

SoAi' ANi> TiiMio Wash. — 

(d) PeiiiHh 6 pounds. 

l.;u-(l 5 " 

lioHiii.t; w.iU'i 5 gallons. 

(h) (,)ni('kliino 1 pock. 

lioiliiij; w.iU'.r 5 jj^allons. 

WluMi (<i) .-Mid (A) have Ixmui thoroughly ;u;ted upon l>y i]\(\ 
hot w;i,t(U-, mix th(! two li(piids. DilnU; before usin^- by addin;^- 
2 }j;!dlons of boiling' \v;itei- to each o;dIon of tin; luixtui'e. This 
]U'ep;ir;ilion has been recommended for borers, but it is of 
<lonbtf(d v.-diK^ 

SoAi' AND Soda Wash. — Add a strong solution of coiunion 
wash so(hi to soft so.-ip until the latter thickens to a thieve ])a,inl. 
'.riie mixture is of v:du<'. in destroyinj^- bai'k lice and similar 
insects. 

SuAl' AND ToUACCM). — 

Sell, Soap 8 pounds. 

Kaiii wai(u- (warm) 12 gallons. 

When this has cooled, add 

SI roiiijj lohacco dccocl ion 1 gallon. 

This has Ikmmi re(U)mmende(l for the destruction of sofl-l)odied 
insects, and uiuloubtedly possesses considerable value. 



172 The Spraying of Plants. 

Soda and Aloes. — 

Washing soda 2 pounds. 

Bitter Barbadoes aloes 1 ounce. 

Dissolve the above in hot water, and when cool add 
Water 1 gallon. 

The preparation has been recommended for destroying plant 
lice, but in order to be effective the plants must be dipped in 
the mixture, and in half an hour syringed off with clear water. 

Soda and Uesin Wash. — 

Sal-soda 3 pounds. 

Hot water 1 pint. 

Then slowly add 

Resin 4 pounds. 

Hot water 2 pints. 

These should be thoroughly mixed, and before using should 
be dihited with 5 gallons of water. 
Soda and Wiiale-oil Soap Wash. — 

Sal-soda 25 pounds. 

Water 25 gallons. 

Boil until dissolved, when 1.^ gallons of whale oil should be 
added. It is applied only to dormant wood, and is particularly 
useful in destroying scale insects. Apply at a temperature of 
130° F. 

Sodium Arsenate. See Arsenate of Soda. 

Soda Wash. — 

Washing soda k pound. 

Water 2 gallons. 

The liquid is i-eady for use as soon as the soda is dissolved. 
It has a caustic action upon foliage, so should be used only upon 
dormant wood. It is said to be of value against borers and 
scale insects. 

Sodium Hyposulphite; Na^.S^O... — Solutions of tlie hypo- 
sulpliite of soda have been very thoroughly tested in respect to 



Materials and Formulas. 173 

their fungicidal value, but the results have not been so satis- 
factory as with the copper compounds, and therefore the sub- 
stance is but little used. I'lie solution may be prei)ared by 
dissolving 1 pound in 10 to 20 gallons of water, although there 
has been reconnnended the application of only | ounce in 10 
gallons. The latter, however, can liave but little value. The 
cost of this substance varies from six to fifteen cents per pound. 
Sodium Sulphide Wash. — 

(a) Whale-oil soap 30 pounds. 

Hot water GO gallous. 

(6) Americau concentrated lye 3 povmds. 

Sulphur G " 

Boiling water 2 gallons. 

Mixture (/>) should be very thoroughly boiled until it is of a 
dark brown color. Chemically it is the sulphide of soda. 
Solutions (rt) and (ft) shouki tlien be mixed and boiled half an 
hour. Before using, dilute with 90 gallons of warm water. 
The remedy is of value for scab diseases of oranges. 

Su(fAU. — Sugar or molasses is sometimes added to copper 
compounds to assist in holding a certain amount of the copper 
in solution. It has long been known that when concentrated 
solutions of sugar and copper sulphate are mixed there is pro- 
duced a bluish-white precii)itate, known as a sulpho-saccharate 
of copper. It is soluble in water, bnt when heated the com- 
pound is broken up, and the copper is deposited in the form of 
a red powder, the protoxide of copper, liecommendatious have 
been made to add molasses at the rate of one-tenth by weight 
of the amount of copper sulphate, or one-twentieth its weight 
of sugar. This renders a portion of the copper in the Bordeaux 
mixture immediately soluble ; but the advantage of the practice 
is doubtful. (See, also, page 50.) The presence of an excess 
of lime in the Bordeaux mixture is essential to the proper 
manufacture of the fungicide with these materials. 

The following analysis i-epresents approxinuitely the com- 
position of a high-grade molasses : 

Sugar 50 per cent. 

Other organic matter 20 " 

Ash 10 " 

Water 20 ** 



174 The Spraying of Plants. 

A poor ([ualiiy oL' molasses lias Ixn-ii rdiiiid ((• possess 

Sugar 1 1."(» per rvul. 

Glucose 1.17 

Ash lli.iHj 

Water 41.57 

SuLPiiATKi> Sm.i'iiru ; hi,i<;iir l'o\vi>i;ij. — 

Copper snlpliate, aiiliytlrons .'{ S poimdH. 

Flowers ol" siilpliiir *.)(> UK) " 

Mix llie two m;il<'rials aiwl a|i|)ly in llie Innii oi" a )to\v<ler. 
Tlio niixtur(; \v;is formerly sii|)pose(l to |iossess stroiii;' rmi^ieidul 
properties, bid, it, is now littl(> used. It is of some value in 
treating' sur fare mildi^ws, (Ik; sidj)liiir prohalily llien heing tlio 
active ])i'iiuriple. 

SuM'iiA'ri<: OI' ('oi'i'i;i{. S(M! (!()iti;i! Si i.imi a no. 

SuLrnATi; oi- Iron. See Iitos Si li-iia ri;. 

SULrilA riNK I'oWDKK. 

Anliydroiis coppcir sidphato 2 pounds. 

Flowers ol' siilpliiir liO " 

Air-slaked lime 2 " 

The ingredients should Ix^ llioroiiglily mixed, when they may 
be a])|>lied. The ]iowder is supposed (o be of vaiiK; as a, fuiigi- 
cide, hut is very little; used. 

SULrillDK OK LlMK, See j.iMi: SlII'IIIDK. 
SUM'IIOSTKATITK ; (' T IM{ IC-S riO AT IIK ; P'oSTITlO. - Slll- 

pliosteatile. is a,n ex(!eediiigly line bliu; |)o\N(j('r eonsistiiii;- (d' 
steatite or talc, and eontaining also rrom L' lo K) p<'i- coid of 
eopi)er sulphate. It is obtained in lOiirope, a,n<l was lirst intro- 
duced into Anieri(!a by (!. il. Joosten, of Ncnv York, in IS!);;; 
Ik; changed tin; name to "Fostite" tlu! following year. The 
copper contaiiKMl in tlu; ])owder is largely solubhs jind in con- 
sequence foliage is freciuently injured l)y the use of the fungi- 
cide. It has been recommended as an insecticide, but I have 
i"ail(ul to derive any IxuKdits from its use for this jtiirposc;. It 
is not so vaJiiabN; as other coj.juir compoiimLs, y(;t it has tlie 
desirable; (piality of })eing remarkably iidherent to foliage;. 

Siiij'MiiR; Flowkijs OF SuLi'iiuit; S. — Siil|>liiir is valuable 
both as an insecticide and as a fungicide. Its use for the lirst 



Materials and Formulas. 175 

purpose is practically confined to greenhouses and conserva- 
tories, and even there only few insects are affected by it. It is 
most rapidly applied by evaporating in a sand bath over an oil 
stove, but extreme care must be given that it does not take fire, 
as then it will instantly destroy all the plants. Red spider and 
related insects are said to be destroyed by the fumes, and treat- 
ment should be made as soon as they are discovered, or even 
before. Sulphur may also be evaporated successfully by plac- 
ing it upon the heating pipes. It is well to mix it with an 
equal amount of lime, and then add water to form a thick 
paint, with which the pipes may be covered. When applied in 
a dry form directly to the plants, it ])Ossesses little value as an 
insecticide. A moist atmosphere in the house probably renders 
the fumes more effective. 

Sulphur is one of the most valuable fungicides for the treat- 
ment of surface mildews, and it has long been used for this 
purpose. Previous to 1880, it was almost the only fungicide 
used in Europe, and it did excellent service in controlling the 
European mildews which attacked the vine and many other 
plants, whether grown under glass or in the open. Out of 
doors it was commonly applied in a dry condition, being blown 
upon the plants by means of hand bellows. Under glass it was 
used in three ways : in the form of powder, wlien mixed with 
water, and when evaporated from the heating surfaces. The 
first method was executed in the same manner as out-doors. 
When mixed with water both the sulphur and the water assist 
in destroying many pests, and it is a common practice to make 
such applications. The proportions of the two vary greatly. 
It has been reconmiended to use 1 ounce of sulphur to 5 gallons 
of water, and also as much as 1 pound to 1 gallon. The more 
dilute mixtures are more easily applied, and if the work is 
thoroughly done, are, on the whole, equally valuable. The fumes 
of sulphur for treating mildews are obtained as described above. 
When the powder is used out of doors the value of the remedy 
undoubtedly rests in the fact that the sulphur gradually gives 
off fumes on account of the heat of the sun, and the mildews 
yield for the same reason that they do when the powder is evap- 
orated under glass. 

One of the most valuable preparations of sulphur is known as 
Orison's liquid, which see. 



176 The Spraying of Plants. 

Sulphur generally sells for about three cents a pound whole- 
sale, and ten cents retail. 
Sulphur and Lime Powder. — 

Flowers of sulphur 1 part. 

Air-slaked lime 1 

Mix and apply in form of a powder. The mixture is of value 
for surface mildews, but is little used in America. The Euro- 
pean grape mildew is easily controlled by it. 

Sulphur and Snuff. — 

Flowers of sulphur 1 pound. 

Scotch snuff 1 " 

Quicklime 1 " 

Soft soap 1 " 

Lampblack z " 

Water, enough to make a thin paint. 

This formula contains an excellent variety of materials, but 
other and simpler ones are undoubtedly equally effective in the 
destruction of plant lice, for which the al)ove is particularly 
recommended. It should be used only upon dormant wood. 

Sulphur and AVhale-oil Soap Wash. — 

Sulphur h pound. 

Boiling water h gallon. 

Boil the sulphur for fifteen minutes. To this add 

Whale-oil soap 1 pound, 

and boil for five minutes. Allow the mixture to stand a week, 
and before using, dissolve 1 pound in a gallon of hot water, 
making the application when the temperature has fallen to 
130^. It is supposed to be a repellent of various burrowing 
larvae, as the currant borer, and others. 

Sulphuret of Potassium. See Potassium Sulphide. 

Sulphuric Acid. See Iron Sulphate. 

Tobacco ; Nicotiana Tabacuini. — The active principle 
of tobacco is nicotine, and this compound gives the plant its 
value as an insecticide. It kills by coming in contact with the 
insects, and so long as this occurs, the method of its application 
is of minor importance. It is most commonly used for the 



Materials and Formulas. 177 

destruction of plant lice, although other soft-bodied insects 
may also be overcome by the applications. The mid-veins, 
or "stems," are the parts sold for insecticidal purposes. The 
simplest method of using them in greenhouses is to strew them 
under the benches, making the layer two to four inches thick, 
and renewing the stems every five or six weeks. Tender plants 
may easily be injured in this manner. Another common prac- 
tice is to burn the stems in the houses, placing them in a sheet- 
iron receptacle having the form of an enlarged stove-pipe placed 
upon end, and having a perforated bottom. Legs should be 
attached at the bottom to keep the fire from the floor. Paper 
or shavings may be used for starting the fire, yet the stems 
themselves should never come to a blaze, but only smolder, so 
that large volumes of smoke may be produced. If the stems 
are dampened, the operation is more effective. About one- 
half pound of the stems to every 500 square feet of glass is the 
quantity generally used. On account of the disagreeable smell 
left in the house this remedy cannot always be employed. In 
place of it there may be used semi-fluid extracts of tobacco 
which are now upon the markets. When evaporated these are 
very efficient in destroying aphis, and only a slight odor 
remains. 

A decoction of tobacco stems is commonly employed. It 
is prepared by steeping the stems in an amount of water 
sufficient to cover them, and when their strength has been well 
drawn out, the liquid is diluted so that it has the color of fairly 
strong tea. It is then sprayed upon the plants, care being- 
taken that the insects to be destroyed are reached by the appli- 
cations. This remedy can be used successfully where fumiga- 
tion is not advisable, and it is cheap and effective. 

Powdered tobacco or snuff may also be used with success. 
The plants to be treated should first be sprayed with clear 
water, and then the powder may be blown on them. The water 
causes it to adhere, and the decoction which probably results 
acts energetically in destroying the pests. 

A tobacco decoction is frequently employed in place of pure 
water in the preparation of other insecticides, and the presence 
of the nicotine renders the preparation more efficient. With 
kerosene emulsion, however, my experience has been such that 
its use for this purpose cannot be advised. 



178 The Sprayhif) of Plants. 

Veratrum album or Y. viride. See Hellebore. 

Verdet. See Copper Acetate. 

Verdigris. See Copper Acetate. 

Washes. — INrany washes have been reconimeiuled and used 
for preventing injury from insects and fungi. The majority of 
them consist largely of soapy materials, and if the applications 
are accompanied by a rubbing of the affected parts good results 
will follow, especially in dest:oying insects. But in such cases 
the mechanical action is perhaps as effective as the material 
applied. Clay has been used for centuries on account of the 
benefits which are supposed to have followed its use when 
mixed w^ith water. It has been particularly recommended as 
an agent for preventing the entrance of borers into trees, and 
has been widely used for this purpose. The actual value of the 
operation is ]>rol»ably not so great as is frequently stated, and 
much profitless labor has undoubtedly been performed in this 
direction. 

The following formula is inserted here not because it possesses 
any marked value, but ratlier for the purpose of illustrating the 
varied combinations of different substances whicli have ])een 
used for the purpose of rendering these washes more efficient. 
This one has been well recommended for preventing the en- 
trance of borers into plum and peach trees, and it represents 
but one of a considerable class of such remedies : 

Carbolic acid 1 quart. 

Soft soap 3 gallons. 

Lime 4 pounds. 

Water 40 gallons. 

Clay, enough to make a thick wash. 

This wash is very adhesive, and on tliis account has attracted 
attention. 

Water ; HgO. — Water is used as an insecticide in three 
different ways : as a means of drowning the insect, as a means 
of forcibly dislodging and indirectly destroying it, and as a 
conveyance for killing it by means of heat. The first method 
is employed frequently in the culture of the cranberry, the 
entire bog being flooded for a certain period, so that it is im- 
possible for the insects to escape. European vineyardists make 
use of the same expedient in treating their vines for the phyl- 



Materials and Formulas. 179 

loxera, the ground remaining covered with water for several 
weeks during the winter, when the plants are dormant. It is 
only in exceptional cases that water can be used in this manner 
to advantage. 

The practice of dislodging insects by means of a stream of 
water forcibly applied is confined almost wholly to florists. 
Plants grown under glass may easily be kept clean in this man- 
ner, provided the water may be used freely ; it is one of the 
best remedies for mealy-bugs and similar pests. The presence 
of red spider upon greenhouse plants is principally due to a dry 
atmosphere, and no good gardener need be troubled by this 
insect, unless some very good reason exists why the plants 
should not be syringed or sprayed. A moist atmosphei'e will 
also check the growth of certain fungi, but as a rule such condi- 
tions favor their development. 

The value of hot water in destroying insectlife has long been 
known. If an insect be treated with water having a tempera- 
ture of 125°-130° F., it will succumb almost immediately, and 
no injury to the plant will result. Rose chafers will yield 
readily to this treatment, but great difficulty is experienced 
in maintaining the proper temperature. A spray is cooled 
instantly, and when a solid stream is used the operation is 
slow and difficult. For this reason the remedy is little used. 

Cold water, that having a temperature little above freezing, has 
been reconmiended against soft-bodied insects, as the cabbage 
worm, but satisfactory results rarely follow such applications. 

WiiALE-oiL Soap. — The value of this soap for destroying 
insects was discovered many years ago. (See page 14.) The 
oil from wdiich the soap is made is probably the active prin- 
ciple. The dissolved soap has proved itself to be of particu- 
lar value in destroying scale insects when used at the rate of 
1 pound in about 5 gallons of water. Mealy-bugs may also be 
destroyed by such a solution, but care must be taken to see that 
the insects are wet by the liquid. Plant lice are easily killed 
with much weaker solutions, using 10 gallons to the pound. 

Whale-oil soap may also be highly recommended for use in 
preparing emulsions of the various oils, since the union of two 
good insecticides cannot fail to make the mixture more effect- 
ive than is either substance alone. The soap varies in price 
from eight to twenty cents per pound. 



180 The Spraying of Plants. 

Whale-oil Soap and Sulphide of Potash AVash. — The 

following formulas for a summer wash have been .recommended 
by the Horticultural Commissioners of Sutter County, Cal. : 

" Whale-oil soap (80 per cent strength) 20 pounds. 

Sulphur 3 " 

Caustic soda (98 per cent strength) 1 pound. 

Commercial potash 1 " 

Water to make 100 gallons. 

"Place the sulphur, caustic soda, and potash together in about 
2 gallons of water and boil for at least an hour, or until 
thoroughly dissolved. Dissolve the soap in the water by boil- 
ing; mix the two and boil them for a short time; use at 130° F. 
in the vessel. 

" Professor Hilgard recommends, in bad cases of scale and in 
fighting red spider, an addition of kerosene in the form of an 
emulsion, to the above wash: 

" Kerosene 1 gallon. 

AVhale-oil soap \ pound. 

Water \ gallon. 

" Dissolve the soap in the water and when boiling hot add the 
kerosene. Churn the mixture for five or ten minutes with a 
hand spray-pump until it forms an emulsion. If the emulsion 
is perfect it will be of a creamy nature, no oil appearing on the 
surface. Add this to the 100 gallons of spraying material. 

" The sulphide of potash and the kerosene emulsion are often 
made up in large quantities, and the proper amount is added to 
the whale-oil soap as required. Keep this wash well stirred 
when using. 

" It is very important that the whale-oil soap should be at 
least 80 per cent strength. To test the soap, spread five or ten 
ounces of it on a tin plate counterpoised on a pair of upright 
scales reading to ounces, and then dry the whole by setting it 
on top of a pot of boiling water. The loss in drying will indi- 
cate the amount of water in the soap. Thus, if five ounces 
were taken and one ounce was lost in drying, the soap would be 
of 80 per cent strength." 

White Hellebore. See Hellebore. 

Yellow Prussiate of Potash. See Ferrocyanide of 
Potassium. 



CHAPTER V. 



SPRAYING DEVICES AND MACHINERY 



The development of spraying machinery received an impetus 
about the same time that the injury of insects and fungi began 
to threaten and destroy so many of our cultivated plants. For 
a long term of years very little had been 
done towards developing apparatus of this 
character, and many crude contrivances 
were used. The early history of the in- 
dustry reveals many appliances which are 
no longer in use, the names even being 
nearly as obsolete as the machines. 

I. HisTOKY OF Syringes and Pumps. 

The simplest device for making liquid 
applications to the stems and foliage of 
plants was probably a whisk of heath, 
straw, or some similar material ; the stems 
were tied in small bundles, the part above 
the tie serving for a handle (Fig. 1). 
Brooms were also used for the same pur- 
pose. The liquid was applied by first dip- 
ping this crude brush or bi'oom into it, and 
then throwing upon the plant what ad- 
hered to the brush. A fairly good applica- 
tion can be made in this manner, although 
the process is a tedious one. This device 
was, nevertheless, used as late as 1882 in France for the purpose 
of applying mixtures composed of the sulphate of copper and 
lime. It is probable that the density of this preparation pre- 

181 




Fig. 1. — Heath whisk, 
the first device used 
for applying Bor- 
deaux mixture. 



182 



The Spraying of Plants. 



vented it from being applied by means of other devices then 
known. Since brooms were used in applying liquids and semi- 
liquids to X3lants even less than twelve years ago, it is not im- 
possible that in certain sections the practice may still be in 
vogue. For many plants it is surely much better to use a device 
of this character than it is to make no application, for low- 
growing plants can be fairly w^ell treated, and they sliould be 

benefited nearly as much as if more 
costly machinery were used. The 
character of many crops grown 
during the past few seasons indi- 
cates that plants will repay treat- 
ment whatever be the nature of the 
method followed. An improved 
brush is shown in Fig. 2. The 
liquid, which was carried in a tank 
on the back of the operator, entered 
the hollow handle through a tube 
connected with the bottom of the 
tank. The fluid then ran along 
the fibers of the broom, and w'as 
thrown from the extremities. The 
flat broom was attached to a broad 
piece of oilcloth, which assisted in 
making a uniform a23plication. A 
stopcock was inserted in the handle 
so that the liquid could be shut oft' 
when desired. This device was 
used in France for applying the 
Bordeaux mixture. 

The watering-can is one of the 
first contrivances made for apply- 
ing liquids upon plants. Its structure, as a rule, is very simple, 
being composed of nothing more than a cylindrical reser- 
voir capable of containing one or more gallons of liquid. 
This device is still in very common use, especially among 
florists. The w^ater or other liquid is poured out through a 
tube which projects on the outside of the reservoir, and which 
springs from the bottom or from near the bottom of the can. 
These tubes or sprouts are of varying lengths and shapes, and 




Fig. 2. —An improved brush for 
distributing Bordeaux mix- 
ture. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



183 



are often jointed ; the cans also differ much from each other. 
The water may be broken up into fine drops by means of a 
perforated disk, or rose, which covers the outer opening of the 
spout, the size of tlie drops varying with the size of holes in the 
rose. Watering-cans are used advantageously only on very low- 
growing plants, as the liquid leaves the spout by the force of 
gravity, and not by pressure applied by the operator. Very 
thorough applications can be made by means of these cans, but 
they are wasteful of materials. 

Small hand pumps, commonly called syringes, came into use 
at an early day. They were very simple in construction, and 
were at first used almost entirely 
for throwing clear water upon 
cultivated plants. They con- 
sisted practically of nothing but 
a tube in which a piston and 
piston-rod could play. The water 
was thrown out of the same ori- 
fice through which it entered. 
Such a contrivance admitted of 
considerable variation, and sev- 
eral styles have been described 
in very early publications. 

A more complicated form of 
syringe includes those which are 
supplied with valves, generally 
two (Fig. 3). In such syringes 
the liquid does not leave the c^'l- 
inder through the same orifice 
at which it entered, but it passes 
out through another. These orifices are each supplied with a 
valve which allows of the free passage of water in the desired 
direction, but prevents its return. The earlier forms of these 
syringes were made principally by the English, and several more 
or less modified forms have been described. The f)rincipal ones 
appear to have been Read's,^ Macdougars,^ AVarner's,^ Johnston's 
portable garden engine,^ and Siebe's universal garden syringe.^ 




Fig. 3. — 8mall band syringe having 
separate inlet and outlet orifices. 



1 "Loud. Eucy. of Gard." 1ST8, &iG. 
« Gard. Mag. Vol. vi. 305. 
3 Ibid. Vol. viii. 353. 



* "Loud. Ency. of Gard."' 1878, 547. 
5 Ibid. loc. cit. 



184 The Spraying of Plants. 

Many other syringes could be mentioned, but the above repre- 
sent the principal ones in use in England as well as in other 
European countries. American gardeners also used them ex- 
tensively, and this type of syringe is still very commonly found, 
although in a much modified form. The following syringe is one 
of the most popular recently used (Fig. 4) : <' In applying Paris 
green or any other solutions to fruit or ornamental trees, Whit- 
man's fountain pump is invaluable. It will throw a stream 
thirty feet high, sixty feet horizontally, and works so easily 
that a child five years old can work it. It can also be used 
advantageously in watering plants^ cleaning carriages and win- 
dows, and might enable one to prevent much destruction in case 
of fire. The pump now retails at seven and one-half dollars." ^ 




Fig. 4. — Whitman's fountain pnmp. 

Garden engines were designed to throw larger amounts of 
liquid than could be well done with hand syringes, and they 
were also generally arranged so that a considerable amount of 
liquid could be transported from one part of the grounds to 
another. A large number of different kinds were made, but 
the majority of them consisted of a force pump fastened upon 
a tank. The pumps, tanks, and the devices for transporting the 
outfit, differed considerably. All were designed to throw clear 
water, or solutions which contained no coarse particles. The 
nozzles used were also designed for the same purpose, and were 
very simple in construction. Fig. 5 represents one of the early 
machines used in America. 

The spraying implements in use in America and in Europe 
were until recently very similar. The comparatively small 
amount of work which had been done in fighting insect and 
fungous enemies previous to 1880 could be fairly well accom- 

1 Cook, Rept Mich. Pom. Soc. 18TS, 23G. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



185 



plished with the machinery then made, and the demand for 
more efficient apparatus was not sufficient to stimnlate invent- 
ors to introduce new devices. But increasing necessities soon 
created a demand for improved machinery, and this quickly 
brought about the production of new implements which were 
adapted to the wants of the horticulturist. 

It is interesting to note that for about a century the needs of 
American and European growers were practically the same, and 
that the apparatus used by the one was also adopted by the 
other. Then suddenly all changed. The Europeans, and par- 
ticularly the French, branched off and made machinery for 
which there was at first no demand in this country, and for which 
there is even now com- 
paratively little. The 
Americans, on the other 
hand, manufactured ma- 
chinery that is not used 
to any great extent in 
Europe, even to this day. 
It was between the years 
1870 and 1880 that the 
American growers be- 
gan searching for pumps 
which were better suited 
to their purpose ; but it 
was not until 1880 to 
1885 that this demand 
had much effect upon 
m a n u f a c t u r e r s. In 
France, new machinery was demanded also between the years 
1880 and 1885, so it may indeed be said that the In-eaking away 
from old methods after a century of uniformity, took place 
simultaneously in France and in America. 

The appearance of the potato beetle in the central and east- 
ern portions of the United States, between the years 1800 and 
1875, familiarized farmers with the use of Paris green, the use 
of this poison proving to be the easiest and most effectual 
method of dealing with the insect. The poison was applied 
both in the form of powder, and suspended in water. But the 
latter method was not so generally adopted, as difficulty was 




Fig. 5. — An eai-ly form of grarden engine. 



186 The Spraying of Plants. 

experienced in making the application. In 1874, Frank M. 
Gray, of Jefferson, Cook County, 111., sent to Professor C. Y. 
Riley, then of Missouri, a sprinkler wliicli was designed to 
spray two rows of potatoes at once.i It consisted of a tank 
holding about eight gallons, and was so arranged that it could 
be strapped to the back of the operator. Two leads of hose 
were attached at the bottom of the tank. At the outer extrem- 
ity of each hose was a nozzle or sprinkler which broke the 
liquid up into fine drops. The flow was due to the force of 
gravity, and could be shut off at will by clamps placed upon 
the hose. This is the first case which has come to my knowl- 
edge of the principle of a knapsack sprayer being used in 
combating the pests of cultivated plants. It will be noticed, 
however, that no pump was fastened to this machine. Several 
devices, resembling the above more or less, have since been con- 
structed, but they have not met with much favor. 

W. P. Peck, of West Grove, Penn., made another machine 
for applying Paris green in water.^ He also used a tank strapped 
to the back, but atomized the liquid by means of a crank wdiich 
operated a pair of bellows. The machine was also provided 
with an automatic agitator which prevented the poison from 
settling. 

The first knapsack pumps used in America were imported 
from France, and it M'as not until 1890 that Americans began 
seriously to consider their manufacture. In France, their use 
is also very recent, since, at the close of the year 1885, these 
machines were scarcely known. The manufacture of two forms 
had just begun, their structure having undoubtedly been sug- 
gested by the conditions under wdiich tlie Bordeaux mixture 
could be most thoroughly applied. One machine was made by 
Gaillot, of Beaune (Cote d'Or).^ It was constructed so that 
air was forced, by means of an exterior pump, into the liquid 
at the bottom of the tank, and the contents were kept agitated 
by the rising air. The other form was manufactured by Kat- 
terbach, also of Beaune ; but, as it appears to have been little 
used, it cannot have been of much value. , Four or five different 

1 Kiley, "Potato Pests," 187C, 63. 

2 Ihid. 64. 

3 Ricaud, Jour. d'Ag. Prat. 1SS5, Dec. 3, 795; also Gaillot, Ihid. 1888, May 
24, T33. 



Spraying Devices and Machinerij. 187 



machines were exhibited at a fair held in Montpelliev, France, 
during February, 1886, and a great number were manufactured 
and sold within the next few years. Hand or barrel pumps 
were rarely used. The most popular knapsack pumps now 
made in France are the Eclair, the Vigouroux, the Japy, and 
the Albrand. The first (Fig. 6) is manufactured by Vermorel, 
Villefranche (Rhone). It is made without a piston, the liquid 
being propelled by means of a circular rubber disk B which is 
fastened at the edges, 

but moves up and — ^^ 

down in the center, 
thus forcing on the 
liquid contained be- 
tween the disk and the 
bottom of the tank, C. 
The liquid in the reser- 
voir, 7?, flows through 
the valve, L, entering 
the space above the 
disk. When the latter 
is forced upward by 
the action of the han- 
dle, /i, the fluid is 
forced through a sec- 
ond valve, V, into a 
second receptacle, 
which serves as an air 
chamber, D. From 
here it passes through 
the orifice, //, and is 
discharged at the end 
of a hose provided for the purpose. When the center of the 
disk is lowered, more fluid is drawn in from the reservoir, and 
in this manner the pumping is performed. 

The Vigouroux pump contains an air chamber and piston 
pump within the tank. The piston is moved by means of a rod 
which ascends through the top of the tank, and, after turning 
sharply, descends on the outside to below the tank, where it is 
attached to the lever w^hich serves as a handle. Another form, 
one which is provided with a second pump for filling the tank 




Fig. 6. — The "EcLair " knapsack piiinp. 



188 



The Spraying of Plants. 



without removing it from tlie back, is also made by the same 
matmfacturer. 

The Japy pump (Fig. 7) is very like the preceding, but the pis- 
ton rod is ^Yorked by a lever situated within the tank, the lever 
in turn being moved by a rod extending through the top of the 
reservoir. Both the cylinder and the air chamber project below 
the tank. For plans of an improved Japy pump, designed by 
B. T. Galloway, see Journal of Mycology^ Vol. vii. No. 1, 39. 




Fiti. 7. —The "Japy" knapsack pump. Fig. 8. — The "Albrand" knapsack pump. 



The Albrand (Fig. 8), manufactured by Valloton, Lyons, 
France, is provided with an air pump situated on one side of 
the tank, near the top. Air is forced into the reservoir, the 
outlet of the conducting tube being near the bottom, thus 
agitating the liquid. The pressure of the air within the tank 
forces out the liquid. 

B. T. Galloway, of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, was the first in this country to publish detailed plans for 
the construction of knapsack pumps. ^ His recommendations 
have been followed more or less closely to the present time, but 

1 Journal of Sfycology, Yol. vi. 1890, Sept. 10, pp. 26 and 51. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



189 



several minor clianges have been made. His pump (Fig. 9) 
consists of a knapsack tank carried on the back of the 
operator. The pump proper is composed of a tube or cylin- 
der which projects a short distance above the top of the tank, 
the lower end being near the bottom of the reservoir. The 
piston is moved by means of a handle which extends forward 
in such a manner that it can be worked easily by the person 
carrying the pump. No pressure is brought to bear upon the air 
above the liquid, but all necessary force is applied directly to 
the liquid by means of the 
working parts of the pump. 
The Galloway knapsack 
sprayer, as the machine is 
commonly called, was first 
manufactured by two firms 
in Washington, D.C.^ A few 
other manufacturers almost 
immediately began tlie con- 
struction of this class of 
pumjis, but on account of 
the limited demand, they 
were not produced in nearly 
such large quantities as were 
the various hand and barrel 
pumps. One company ^ put 
an enormous air chamber 
above the tank tlie first year 
it sold the machine ; as this 
feature was advertised only 
one year it is good evidence that its use was not advisable. 
Later styles of these pumps have varied in the shaj^e of the 
tank, and many desirable features have been added, but the gen- 
eral plan has remained unchanged. They are almost without 
exception made of copper and brass, and consequently withstand 
the corroding action wrought by many of the materials applied. 
Rumsey & Co. has departed from the Galloway sprayer, and 
now manufactures a pump in which air is forced into the tank 
by means of a pump, and this air pressure forces out the liquid. 




Fig. 0. — The "Galloway" knapsack pump. 



1 Albinson «& Co.; Leitch & Sons. 

2 Field Force Pump Co., Lockport, N. Y. 



190 



The Sprayincf of Plants. 



So.voral French iiiacliines arc built in this luaniun-, o\u' of tlio 
advantages chiinied being that the outfit is more durable, since 
the materials applied do not come in contact with the working 
parts of the puni)). 'I'he Galloway type, however, is at present 

more popular. 

The use of Paris green to de- 
stroy the plum curculicj, canker- 
worm, and the codlin-moth, soon 
created a denumd for pumps and 
nozzles which would be effective 
in applying sprays to well-grown 
trees. Several firms soon began 
to supply this demand. C. J. 
Ivumsey k Co., of Seneca Falls, 
N.Y., had been supplying various 
gardiiu engines as eai'ly as 1858, 
or even before. \n IHOO the firm 
advertised a garden engine; as 
an instrument for " the throwing 
of li([uid compounds, 
such as whale-oil, soap- 
suds, tobacco - wat<n', 
etc., for destroying in- 
sects on trees, roses, 
and other plants." The 
outfit consisted of a 
tank resting on two 
wheels in front and on 
two legs Ix'hind; it 
was moved about ;is a 
wheelbarrow is. The 
pump had an eiioi'- 
inoiis air (thaniber, a 
part which has fortunately been reduced in size during later 
years. Various small hand or bucket pumps wen; sold soon 
after. 

On Nov. (), 1S()(), M(!ssrs. W. and li. Douglas, of Middletown, 
Conn., obtained a patent on a garden or greeidiouse engine, and 
in the same year the same company patented its " A<|uaiius," a 
bucket pump still advertised. 




Fin. 10. — Tho " Floridii " barrel junni), tlio lirst 
form c^spcciidly dcsif^iicd for si)raying purposes. 



Spraying Devices and 3Iaehuie)'i/. 



191 



It was not until the year 1880 that the pump manufacturers 
of this country fully realized the necessity of taking steps 
towards supplying the growing demand for pumps especially 
designed for spraying purposes, and the next five years showed 
that many were giving the matter serious attention. New firms 
were organized with the special object of manufacturing and 
selling pumps and other materials which were in demand by 
those who sprayed. 

In 1880 Humsey & Co. offered for sale the "Florida" pump 
(Fig. 10), which seems to have been the first barrel pump 
designed especially to meet the re- 
quirements of a good sprayer. The 
firm writes me that '' its introduc- 
tion was followed by a demand we 
were unable to supply." This state- 
ment is emphasized by the fact that 
in 1882 the well-known firm, the 
Field Force Pump Co., of Lockport, 
N.Y., was founded, to supply the 
demand of local fruit growers for 
a pump which would be satisfac- 
tory as a sprayer. The leading 
entomologists of the country were 
urging the farmers to spray, and 
these in turn made demands upon 
the manufacturers ; and thus the 
industry arose. In 1882 the latter 
company received a patent upon its 
combined cistern and force pump 
(Fig. 11). This pump w\as pro- 
vided with a three-inch cylinder, 

but a larger size had one that was three and one-half inches in 
diameter. A later form was made with a two and one-half 
inch cylinder. 

In 1889 another firm, the Nixon Nozzle & Machine Co., 
came into prominence. At this time it advertised two garden 
engines, the "Little Giant" and a "Barrel Machine"; the 
" Little Climax " pump was also catalogued. These machines 
were all very powerful, and were made particularly to supply 
the growing demand for spray pumps. 




Fig. 11. — Combined cistern and 
force pump. 



192 



The S]praying of Plants. 



Morrill & Moiiey, Benton Harbor, Mich., in 1894 introduced a 
pump shown in Fig. 12. This style is a radical departure from 
older forms. The cylinder is placed at the bottom of the pump, 
directly in the liquid. No stuffing-box is used, and as the pis- 
ton and cylinder are surrounded by the fluid, no priming is 

necessary. These pumps are sim- 
ple, powerful, and durable, and 
many are now in use. 

In recent years many of the 
leading pump manufacturers have 
added spray pumps to their cata- 
logues, and other firms have been 
established Avhich make a specialty 
of this class. As so many differ- 
ent men have been engaged in 
the work, it is not strange that a 
great variety of pumps should 
have been made. Some of them 
are excellent, but others do not 
answer all requirements so well as 
might be desired. One form that 
has been little used and which yet 
has some very promising features 
is that made by the Bean-Cham- 
berlin Manufacturing Co., of Hud- 
son, Mich. The firm oifers a 
number of pneumatic pumps which 
differ radically from the pumps 
sold by other dealers. Instead of 
using directly the force obtained 
by the moving piston, this force is 
directed toward compressing air 
in a reservoir. Fig. 13 illustrates the general plan upon which 
these pumps are built. 

The pump proper, B, is situated at the right of the large tank 
or reservoir. It is used for forcing liquids into the reservoir, C, 
from below. As the liquid enters the tank the air is compressed, 
and this allows a large amount of fluid to enter. Most of these 
pumps are made so that they will withstand 160 pounds of 
pressure, a steam gauge, G, being fastened to the tank of each 




Fig. 12. — A new type of spray 
pump. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery, 193 



pump to indicate the pressure 
under which the work of spraying 
is done. These pumps are made 
of different sizes. 

The Nixon Nozzle & IMachine 
Co., Dayton, O., w^as the first to 
manufacture a geared spraying 
machine. It was called the " Field 
and Orchard JNIachine," and was 
designed by A. II. Nixon, the 
founder of the firm. The machine 
was introduced in 1887, it being- 
sent to several persons to be tested. 
In 1888 it was offered to the pub- 
lic. Fig. 11: illustrates the general 
construction of the machine as first 
sold. It will be noticed that the 
four nozzles are situated in front 
of the wheels, instead of at the 
rear as is now generally the case. 
The tank held 100 gallons, and 
was built in the form of a cube, 
instead of barrel-shaped. The 
price was seveiity-five dollars. 




I'lUMuiiatic spicW 1)111111) 




Fig. 14. — The first geared spray niacliiiie advertised in America. 
O 



194 



The Spraying of Plants. 



Various excellent machines of this type are now manufac- 
tured by several firms. 

During the past few years, many machines adapted to the 
spraying of potatoes and other low-growing plants have been 
manufactured. They are of two kinds : First, those in which 
the flow of liquid is produced by gravity ; second, those in which 
the fluid is forced through the outlet orifice with the aid of a 
pum^D. Some of the machines belonging to the first class break 




Fig. 15. — The first successful .si)r;iyin^' outlit u^iny >tfaiii ]iu\\i-r. 

up the liquid by means of revolving brushes,^ or by a blast 
of air,2 but the majority are modifications of common street 
sprinklers. 

The second class includes both hand pumps and power 
machines, and as a rule these are the most satisfactory. Less 
trouble is experienced from clogghig, and more uniform appli- 
cations may be made. One of the first machines of this charac- 
ter was the " Climax," this having been sold in 1890. It was 
manufactured by Thomas Peppier, Hightstown, N.J., and is 

1 J. E. Steitz, Cudahy, Wis. 2 geth K. Samms, Byberry, Philadelphia, Penn. 



Spraying Devices mid Machinery. 



195 



still upon the market in an improved form. In 1895 the Dem- 
ing INl'f'g Co., Salem, O., first made the "Monarch," a powerful 
machine, wliich is also suitable for vineyard work. 

The first successful use of steam power for spraying* was 
made, so far as I have been able to learn, by Stephen Hoyt, 
New Canaan, Conn. The outfit (Figs. 15 and 16) was first 
operated in 1894, and the following year it was again used with 
most satisfactory results.^ Large shade trees were sprayed 
thoroughly and rapidly by the outfit. Mr. Hoyt writes me as 
follows regarding its operation : 




Fi(i. 1(3. —Tank, boiler, and pnmi) of the outfit shown in Fig-. 15. 

" The machine is made to throw four streams, two of which 
are to work at the same time ; two men are to go up the trees 
to the crotch and spray, while the other two are either preparing 
to go up the next or are coming down from the two which they 
have sprayed. The hose is fixed so as to shut any one of them 
off at any time, and so when two of the men are through spray- 
ing, the other two can start or keep on as they choose. 

" The two streams in the picture have a water pressure of from 
125 to 150 pounds per square inch, and with a steam pressure 

1 Cunnecticut Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S95, July, Bull. 121, 4. 



196 The Spraying of Plants. 

of 100 pounds. We can produce a spraying pressure of over 
200 pounds, but is not necessary as it is too big a strain on the 
hose. I have liad three streams going at one time with a 
water pressure of 100 pounds. 

*' We use the McGowen nozzle, it being the most economical 
and does not use so much of the liquid as some others, and if 
necessary, can make the spray nothing but a mist. But for elm- 
tree spraying we use the McGowen straight stream, as the pres- 
sure is so great that it tears the stream into a good spray for 
tree spraying." 

Various modifications and improvements have already been 
suggested for the above, and the time must soon come when 
some such apparatus will be generally employed for preserving 
the long-suffering shade trees of our cities from the ravages of 
insects. The smooth roads will allow the use of heavier and 
more simple machinery than could be worked in many of our 
large orchards. The cost of the treatments would be distributed 
among so many, and the benefits derived would be so great, 
that such outfits may soon come into general use. 

Gas engines have also been employed. During 1895, W. 
R. Gunnis, of San Diego County, Cal., applied kerosene emul- 
sion to his trees, using power of this nature. " The appa- 
ratus is placed on the platform of a light wagon, and on the 
front end is a tank of a capacity of 100 gallons, filled with the 
emulsion. A small electro-vapor engine on the wagon o]ierates 
a double-action, high-pressure, cylinder pump, and to this eight 
lines of hose may be attached. The j)unip can be worked at a 
pressure of 200 pounds, rendering the spray fine and strong, 
and capable of reaching to the tops of the tallest trees, where 
the hose is supported by ten-foot bamboo canes. Twenty-five 
or thirty acres of four-year old trees may be sprayed in one day 
with the labor of four men." ^ 

A device for mixing kerosene and water has been invented 
by Professor Goff, and during 1894 the Nixon Nozzle & 
Machine Co. offered it for sale in connection with the " Climax " 
pump, and other firms attached it in a modified form to knap- 
sack sprayers. Experiments for obtaining such a mixture had 
been made in 1888,'-^ but it was not until about the year 1893 

1 Insect Life, 1895, vii. No. 5, 413. 

2 Goff, X. Y. State Agrlc. Exp, Sta. Ann. Hept. 1SS8, 1-iS. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



197 



that dealers considered the matter seriously. The principle 
underlying the construction of the apparatus is that the move- 
ment of the piston draws into the cylinder a certain amount 
of water through one 

opening, but through if 

a second one kerosene 
is drawn in. The two 
liquids become intimate- 
ly mixed by their pas- 
sage through the pump 
before being thrown 
from the nozzle, and 
thus a dilute kerosene 
may be evenly applied. 
The flow of kerosene 
into the cylinder may 
be regulated by a stop- 
cock. ^ An improved 
form of such an attach- 
ment on a knapsack 
pump is showai in Fig. 
17. The Deming Co., 
of Salem, O., and Professor H. E. Weed, of Agricultural Col- 
lege, Mississippi, have been most active in perfecting these 
machines. 




Fig, 17. — Au improved form of a kerosene reser- 
voir attached to a knapsack pump. 



11. Evolution of Nozzles. 

The production of the spray nozzle is one of the most inter- 
esting of the many problems which have taxed the ingenuity 
of inventors. So long as the materials applied were in the form 
of clear liquids, or when they were used only in small quantities, 
not much attention was paid to this part of the machines. But 
with the use of the garden engine and force pump, and more 
dense fluids, there also arose the demand for proper devices by 
means of which the liquid thrown could be broken up more or 
less finely. 

The simplest, and probably the first form of nozzle was one 



^ See also Wi>i. Agrie. Exp. Sta. Ann. liept. 1S91, 162, and Garden and 
Forest, vii. 1895, 143. 



198 The Spraying of Plants. 

which would throw" a solid stream. It was constructed so that 
the volume of liquid w^as gradually contracted as it approached 
the outlet orifice, and the stream was not broken up until it had 
been carried some distance from the nozzle. The stream was 
often changed to a spray by screwing a rose, or some similar 
device, to the end of the nozzle. The openings in these attach- 
ments still allowed the passage of solid streams of liquid, but 
these were so reduced in size that the fluid was broken up into 
much smaller drops. 

Three principles have been utilized in the construction of all 
spray nozzles now in use. These j)rinciples form a basis for 
the natural division of nozzles into three main groups, these 
allowing of still further subdivision : 

1. Spray nozzles in which the stream is more or less broken 
directly in consequence of the modifying action of the margins 
of the outlet orifice. 

2. Spray nozzles in which the stream, having passed the 
outlet orifice proper, is modified by obstructions which affect 
its free and direct outward passage. 

3. Spray nozzles in w^hich a strong rotary motion is given 
to the liquid, and in consequence of this motion, the stream 
leaving the outlet orifice immediately assumes the form of a 
spray. 

These principles are mentioned in the order in which they 
probably came into use. Some of the later nozzles combine 
the first two principles, and others seem to form a connection 
between them, although one principle or the other strongly 
predominates. Some of the nozzles belonging to the various 
groups are here briefly considered.^ 

The first groiip was long represented by nozzles throwing a 
solid stream, the outlet orifice being circular. A new type of 
nozzles, a modification of these, began to be made about 1875. 
This class became known as graduating spray nozzles, from the 
fact that the character of the liquid thrown could be varied 
from a solid stream to that of a fine spray, by introducing into 
the outlet orifice a pointed piece of metal or lance. This entered 
the orifice from the inner side, and the further it was intro- 
duced, the smaller became the opening and the finer was the 

1 For a more complete description, with illustrations, of many of the nozzles 
here mentioned, see American Gardening, 1893, May, 266. 



Spraying Devices mid Machinery. 



199 



spray. It was moved by turning some part of the nozzle which 
was connected with the Lance. The "Peerless," "Lowell," and 
" Gem" (Fig. 18 a) are good examples of this class. 

In 1878 a patent was granted to the Belknap Company on a 
new nozzle called the " Boss " (Fig. 18 h). It has two outlet 
orifices, and the stream is directed into the one or the other by 
means of a hollow stopcock which is perforated in such a man- 
ner that it partially or entirely closes one or both of the open- 
ings. The "Eureka," "Masson," and "Bordeaux" (Fig. 18 c) 
are modified forms which have since appeared. The spray is 
varied by changing the size of 
the opening, this being easily 
done by turning the perforated 
stopcock. 

In 1858 Rumsey & Co. adver- 
tised a nozzle called the " Fan- 
tail" (see Fig. 5). It consisted 
of a flat spreading tip having a 
long, narrow opening which dis- 
charged the liquid in the form 
of a spray resembling in outline 
the ilanie of a gas jet. This 
principle of having the liquid 
issue between two flat, parallel 
pieces of metal has been retained 
in more or less modified form 
in many of the nozzles now in 
use. One of the most primitive 
forms was made by hammering a nozzle designed to throw a 
solid stream in such a manner that the opening was long and 
narrow instead of circular. It was even recommended that 
they should be made in this manner.^ Little was done towards 
improving this class of nozzles until about 1889, when a patent 
was granted on the "Xew Bean." In this nozzle the width of 
the opening could be adjusted by means of a screw, one side of 
the orifice being of rubber packing. In 1800 Bailey published 
a description of a device, by means of which the end of a hose 
could be contracted so that a fan-shaped spray was produced ^ 




Fig. 18. — Spray nozzles, a. gradu- 
ating spray "Gem"; b, '"Boss" ; 
c, " Bordeaux." 



1 Cultivator and Country Gentleman, 1871, Aug. 3, 486, 

2 Cornell Agric. Ea'p. Sta. 1890, July, Bull. 18, 39. 



200 



The Spraying of Plants. 



(Fig. 19 a). The size of the opening was entirely under the 
control of the operator, and in case of clogging it could be 
opened to its fullest extent. 

It was about this time that the " Wellhouse " nozzle was first 
madei (Fig. 19 h). It is made after the pattern of a gas jet, 
but much larger. 

In 1892 the first automatic cleaning nozzle was invented 
(Fig. 19 (J), it having been suggested by the device shown in 
Fig. 19 c. It has since been offered for sale, in a modified 




Fig. 19. — o, " Bailey " ; h, " Wellhoii.Nu " ; e and d, forms which led to the con- 
struction of e, the "McGowen." 

form, having been named the "McGowen," after its inventor.'^ 
In this nozzle (Fig. 19 e) the opening is formed by two pieces 
of metal which remain in contact when not in use. One piece 
is movable and is in the form of a piston which moves back- 
ward and forward in a cylinder placed at right angles to the 
main shaft. As the pressure in the shaft increases, the size of 
the opening enlarges, and in this manner any obstruction which 
may become lodged at the outlet orifice will cause an increase 



1 Invented by Walter Wellhonse, Fairmouiit, Kan. See a full illustrated account 
in Rep. Kan. Ilort. Soc. xviii. 99. 

2 John J. McGowen, Ithaca, N.Y. 



Spraying Devices^ and MacJiinery. 201 



of pressuro wliich loi'cos ilu; ])i.stoii l)ack to its fullest extent, 
thus ullovviu^ the ]);issage ol" the o])struction. This nozzle is 
in nijuiy i-(!S[>ects a radical (lej)arture from all fonns made at 
the time oi" its introduction, and its autonuitic action marks it 
as a distinct advance in the evolution of spray nozzles. 

The s(!(!ond group of nozzles, including those in which the 
str(;am of li([uid is l)rok(Mi by some obstruction preventing its 
fi-(M; outward passage, is represented by fewer specimens than is 
either one of the others. Although such nozzles were among 
the first made, their construc- 
tion ai)parently does not admit 
of so many modifications as are 
feasible in the other groups. 

The form first sold was known 
as a "Diffuser." It was made 
by extending a portion of one 
side of the outlet orifice into a 
broad, fan-sha|)(Hl piece of metal 
against whicii the licjuid was 
thrown at a very slight angle. 
This caused the stream to spread 
over the surface of the projec- 
tion, and in this manner it was 
broken up into a coarse spray. 
Fig. 20 a represents a form at 
present used in France, the 
" Vigouroux." The fan-shaped 
projection has in recent years 
been so constructed that it may 
be brought close to the orifice or it can be removed entirely ^ 
(Fig. 2()/>). Tt is generally made of metal, but there is now 
sold one form in which a piece of rubber answers the same 
puri>ose. The rubber is pressed over the opening in the nozzle, 
and tiie size of the orifice as well as the character of the spray 
may be varied to a considerable extent. 

In 1884 a patent was granted to the Nixon Nozzle & IMachine 
Co.,'-^ on a nozzle known as the "Climax," in which the liquid 
was forcibly thrown as a solid sti'eam against a piece of wire 




Fig. 20. — a, ' 
7^ " Lewis" 
(/, " I'.iill." 



Vigouroux " ; 
c, " Climax" ; 



1 r. V. Low-is Miiiuifact\irin«- Co. Ciitskili, N.Y. 

2 Nixon Nozzle it Macliiiu' Co. Dayton, O. 



202 The Sprayini/ of Plants. 

gauze (Fig. 20 c). It was here broken up into a spray varying in 
character witli the size of the meshes in the wire netting. These 
nozzles were widely recommended and sold, and they are the 
most important which can at present be found in this group. 

The " Ball " nozzle (Fig. 20 d) is a new modification which 
was first extensively advertised in 1895. At the end of a hose 
is fastened a hollow conical piece of metal in which a light ball 
loosely rests. As the liquid is forced against the ball the latter 
is not ejected, but remains to break up the fluid into a fairly 
light spray. The serious objection to the device is the amount 
of power required to throw even a moderate amount of fluid.^ 

There is another class wdiich may be included here. It is 
composed of those nozzles in which the obstruction is not a 
solid, but consists of a stream of liquid. Two openings are 
made at the outer extremity of the nozzle, and these incline 
toward each other in such a manner that the two streams 
issuing from them come forcibly in contact with each other, 
and are immediately changed to a fine spray. The " Lilly," 
or " Calla," and one modification of the " McGowen," are good 
examples of this form. 

The history of the third group of nozzles is very recent, yet 
many forms have been produced. Several of the most popular 
nozzles now in use may here be classified together. They are 
collectively known as the cyclone or eddy-chamber nozzles, 
from the fact that the liquid, upon entering the nozzle, is 
forced to whirl with great rapidity in a circular chamber 
before it passes through the outlet orifice. This cyclonic 
motion causes the fluid to be broken up into particles which 
vary in size with the size of the opening, the smaller orifices 
causing the formation of a spray which is exceedingly fine, so 
fine that it floats in the air like steam, and does not fall to the 
ground. 

William S. Barnard appears to liave been the first to conceive 
the idea of making spray nozzles in which the above principle 
should be utilized.'^ During the summer of 1880 he was 

1 American Ball Nozzle Co. 887-847 Broadway, N.Y. 

2 " On such evidence it must be held that Barnard originated the basic idea of the 
improvement in question." Decision of the CoTnmissioner of Patents and of U. S. 
Courts in Patent (3ases as recorded in The Ojficlal Gazatie of the U. S. Patent 
Office, Vol. 59, No. 12, 1922. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



203 



engaged as an agent of the United States Entomological Com- 
mission, and was stationed in tlie Sonth to conduct experiments 
for the destruction of the cotton-worm. It was probably while 
engaged in the work of throwing liquids that the idea suggested 
itself, and that it was soon put into execution is shown by an 
affidavit made by Professor C. V. Kiley, April 14, IS86.1 During 
1880 the principle was tested with the aid of watch crystals, these 
being chosen from the fact that in them the action of the liquid 
could be easily observed. Other contrivances were also em- 
ployed, and thus l)egan the series which eventually led to the 
construction of the nozzle that became 
widely known as the " Riley," " Cy- 
clone," or "Eddy-chamber" spray nozzle 
(Fig. 21a). Unfortunately, the name 
" Barnard " has not been more closely 
connected with the invention, which is 
without doubt one of the most impor- 
tant of the many bearing on the subject 
of spraying. The nozzle was briefly 
mentioned in the annual report of the 
United States Commissioner of Agri- 
culture for 1881-82, and again in the 
report of 1884. In the latter report, on 
page 330, Dr, Riley makes the following- 
statement : " The final form of chamber 
adopted is the result of numberless ex- 
periments carried on by Dr. Barnard in 
my work, both for the United States 
Entomological Commission and the De- 
partment of Agriculture." 

Dr. Riley visited France in 1884, and in an address delivei-ed 
June 30, to the Societe Centrale d'Agriculture de ITIerault, he 
mentioned Barnard's nozzle, and this no doubt hastened its 
adoption in that country.'^ The nozzle was easily clogged, and 
on this account it gave considerable trouble, yet it was conceded 
to be one of the best, and was used by several experimenters in 
1885. It attracted the attention of French manufacturers, 
the firm of V. Vermorel, Villefranche (Rhone), being perhaps 




Fig. 2\.—a, "Cyclone" ; 
b, old form of " Vermo- 
rel " ; c, modified form 
of" Vermorel." 



1 Official Gazette U. S. Patent Office, Vol. 59, No. 12, 1922. 
^ ilessager Agricole, 1884, July' 10, 2(51. 



204 The Spraying of Plants. 

the first to manufacture this nozzle, which is tliere called the 
" Riley." Vermorel informs me that it was during 1886 and 
1887 that he added tlie attachment by means of which the out- 
let orifice can be cleaned when it becomes clogged. The improve- 
ment consists of a pin or lance which can be pressed forward 
until the point penetrates the orifice and thereby forces outward 
all obstructions. Fig. 21 h represents one of the earlier forms. 
Vermorel also made a few minor changes during 1889 and 1800. 
His improved form of the cyclone nozzle became known as the 
" Vermorel," and it was almost immediately adopted in America, 
to the exclusion of the older forms made by Barnard. The 
name "Vermorel" has also been retained. The nozzle is at 
present one of the best in use. Although many modifications 
of it have been made, the original form is fully as serviceable 
as the later ones, and it is generally preferred. ^ 

The elbow in the Vermorel nozzle is one feature which is 
open to slight objection, and many attempts have been made to 
avoid it (Fig. 21 c). Several nozzles have also been made in 
which the eddy chand)er and outlet orifice are situated directly 
in line with the main shaft. These nozzles look a little neater, 
and they are more easily moved about among branches, but in 
other respects they possess no advantage. The spray as a rule 
is no better than that of the true Vermorel, and the parts are 
cleaned with greater difficulty in case of clogging. The class 
is represented by the "Marseilles," "Bean's Cyclone," "Myers," 
" Acme," and others. 

Vermorel nozzles are also made with a shaft about eighteen 
inches long. Connections are made with the lance which 
cleans the orifice by means of a rod which is operated by a lever. 
This form is used almost wholly with knapsack pumps. 

III. 1)ELL0WS AND PoWDER CtUNvS. 

Powders have long been used for the control of fungi and 
insects. In Europe sulphur was generally so applied, previous to 
1885, against the grape mildew, and special apparatus had been 
devised for making these applications. The most popular 
instrument for the purpose was a hand bellows, upon which 

1 For French modifications of the cyclone nozzle, see Kiley, Innent Life, ISSS), 
Vol. i. No. 8, 243 ; and IhUl. No. 9, 263'. 



Spraying Devices and Machinery. 



205 




Fig. 22. — Hand bellows for blowing- powders. 



■was fastened a small restu-voir for holding the material 
(Fig. 22). Bellows are easily operated, distribute the powders 
evenly, and in ad- 
dition are cheap, 
so they are still 
very commonly 
used, in modified 
and improved 
form, both in Eu- 
rope and in this 
country. When 
large areas are to 
be treated, however, the work progresses but slowly, and this 
has led to the invention of machines which foi'ce a current of 
air through a tube by means of a revolving fan, the powder 
being mixed with the air. A type of this class of machines is 
shown in Fig. 23. Their action is certain and rapid, and 
although they are more expensive, their greater effectiveness 

well warrants the outlay. 
The first powder gun made 
in America appears to have 
been invented by Legget, 
who began its manufacture 
as early as 1854. 

Another advance was 
made in 18.95, when there 
was advertised a horse- 
power machine called the 
" Sirocco Dust Sprayer." i 
A powerful air blast is produced by gearing a revolving fan to 
the main wheels, and large amounts of any dry j)owder may 
be quickly and evenly distributed. 




Fig. 23. — Gun for ai»j)l}ing powders rapidly. 



IV. Comparison of Liquids and Powders. 

Having thus very briefly discussed the gradual introduction 
and development of the machinery used in making applications 
of insecticides and fungicides, it now remains to discuss the 



1 The Sirocco Company, Unionville, Lake County, O. 
by W. E. Monroe. 



The device was invented 



206 The Spraying of Plants, 

all-important question, "Which is the best?" Before going 
into details it may be well to obtain a clear idea with regard 
to the comparative value of liquids and powders. 

Powders are more easily handled than liquids, and with the 
machinery now made they can be just as evenly applied ; yet it 
is only in exceptional cases that their use is advisable. Powders 
cannot be thrown any considerable distance, and this neces- 
sarily limits their profitable application to the lower growing- 
plants. This becomes especially emphatic when a wind is 
blowing, for every current of air will change the direction in 
which the particles move, and a considerable loss of material 
will take place. A quiet day is therefore generally the best for 
making such applications. 

Another defect is that powders cannot always be made to 
adhere so firmly to foliage as the liquid applications do. When 
the foliage is dry it commonly' occurs that scarcely any of the 
powders will adhere, and this necessitates wetting the parts to 
be treated, or else waiting until dew or rain shall have moistened 
them so that the particles will remain where they are applied. 
Plants having smooth foliage are particularly difficult to treat. 
Another objection, and so far as fungous diseases are concerned, 
the most serious one, is that we have no powders which are as 
effective as the liquids, and for this reason alone the latter are 
to be preferred. With insecticides, however, the case is different. 
The best insecticides are in powder form, and when low-grow- 
ing, rough-leaved plants are treated while the foliage is damp, 
the poisons can be profitably and economically applied. Plants 
grown in greenhouses can also be successfully treated in the 
same manner, since here there are almost no air currents, and 
the moisture maybe controlled with ease. 

Liquids can be applied under nearly all circumstances. If 
proper machinery is used, it makes comparatively little differ- 
ence whether the plants are one or thirty feet high. In case 
of a wind the material can still be thrown, although not so 
well, and the operator is also under less discomfort. Liquids 
will adhere to the parts to which they are applied, with only 
few exceptions, and on this account greater protection is 
afforded by them. Both fungicides and insecticides can be 
thrown equally well by the same appliances, and since the two 
are generally used, it would seem that liquids are to be pre- 



Sprayinfj Devices aiid Machinery. 207 

ferred. This is especially true when several different crops are 
to be treated. 

If powdei's are preferred, the hand bellows will be found 
very serviceable when only a small area is to be covered. For 
more extensive work, machines with revolving fans to produce 
stronger air blasts will answer the purpose better, since the 
work can be done more easily and also more rapidly. 



V. Merits of the Various Spraying Devices. 

The bulk of insecticides and fungicides are applied in liquid 
form, and so much machinery for making the applications is 
offered for sale that the selection of the best is by no means 
an easy matter. The conditions under which the materials 
are used are so exceedingly varied, that recommendations 
which apply in one case have little value in another. Onlv 
general statements can be made with safety, and each indi- 
vidual nmst select that which in his judgment promises to be 
most effective. Several of the ideas here advanced are not in 
accord with those of some writers whose opinions are entitled 
to very careful consideration ; but since they are the result 
of personal experience and observation in the field, and of ex- 
periment in the laboratory, the conclusions reached are given 
with the belief that no one who follows them will go far 
astray. The subject is the more difficult to treat from the fact 
that personal bias often enters, and that which suits one man 
may or may not suit another. The manufacturers' side must 
also be considered, since it is but right that their products 
should be justly valued. Unfortunately, it is impossible to 
enter into the merits and defects of all spraying contrivances 
offered for sale ; the descriptions, therefore, will apply only to 
the types of the more important groups. 

A few points apply in the selection of any spraying machine. 
As a rule, it is better to have all working parts of brass, the 
body of the pump being either of brass or of iron. The alloy 
is more durable than iron, since it is not so easily corroded by 
the liquids used, nor by exposure to air. The first cost is 
greater, but in the end the extra price is well spent. All brass, 
however, is not suitable for spray pumps. Ammonia water has 



208 The Spraying of Plants. 

a strong solvent action npon soft brass, that wliicli is composed 
of copper and zinc, and for this reason such brass should be 
avoided. Hard brass is an alloy in which more or less tin is 
used with the copper ; it is much more durable, and is to be 
preferred in the construction of both pumps and nozzles. 

Pump valves are made of various materials. The metal ones 
are to be preferred as a rule, although glazed ball valves are 
very satisfactory. Leather is freely used as packing and in 
valves, and on account of the ease wath which it can be 
replaced, it is not objectionable. Eubber, however, especially 
if it is soft, is unsafe to use in a spray machine. Kerosene will 
cause it to swell to such an extent that the pump is rendered 
worthless until a new valve is put in, or tlie old one is given 
time to shrink, — a process which may require months. 

Knapsack pumps have several features to recommend them. 
Liquids can in this manner be carried and applied in places 
inaccessible to wheeled vehicles. Vineyards are frequently set 
in such locations, as are also espaliers and fruit-walls, and under 
such conditions a knapsack pump has no equal. On small home 
grounds, where the nature of the spraying is varied, these 
pumps may also be used to advantage. But trees cannot be 
successfully treated by them, as the liquid is not thrown far 
enough. Nor is their use in even moderately large plantations 
advisable, since the labor of carrying the pump is onerous, and 
the machine is not easily operated. Other unpleasant features 
will also be forced upon the man who works the machine, and 
when possible a different device should be preferred. 

Hand syringes are practically out of the question when liquid 
applications are to be made, except in case of plants grown 
under glass; then the syringe is much used, although water 
under pressure is now so generally piped to greenhouses that 
even here the use of syringes is steadily decreasing, the more 
so, since a stream of water forcibly applied is a very popular 
way of controlling insect pests. Fungicides may be applied to 
plants under glass, either with syringes or by means of knap- 
sack or bucket pumps. 

Bucket pumps, such as represented in Fig. 24, are very power- 
ful for their size, and they will throw considerable quantities 
of liquid. Moderate-sized trees may be thoroughly treated by 
them, and when little work is to be done these pumps may well 



Spraying Devices and 3Iacliinery. 



209 



be substituted for the knapsack sprayers. 
Statements are frequently seen, asserting 
that these and similar pumps may be 
used successfully in orchard work, and 
so they may. But the work is so tedious 
and slow, that the experiment will rarely 
be tried more than once. A larger pump 
will throw a greater quantity of liquid and 
throw it easier, so that it is a mistake to 
purchase a small pump for any but very 
limited plantations. Fig. 25 represents 
another serviceable pump of this kind. 

The greatest variety of pumps may be 
found among those which are suited for work on a l^arrel, or 




Fig. 24. — Bucket pump. 




Fig. 25. — Improved bucket pump. 

tank, and here is where the greatest difficulty occurs in making 
a selection. Items of cylinders, pistons, handles, air chambers, 
p 



210 The Spraying of Plants. 

agitators, bases, etc., require attention, and as they are all of 
importance, they will be briefly considered. 

Experience has led to the conclusion that no barrel spray 
pump should have a cylinder less than 21 inches in diameter, 
and one with a three-inch cylinder is perhaps to be preferred. 
This assumes that more than one nozzle is to be attached to 
the pump, otherwise a smaller pump will answer, especially if 
an eddy-chamber nozzle is used. But with nozzles designed for 
heavier work, such as the "Wellhouse," the "McGowen," or the 
"Bordeaux," the above dimensions are none too large. The 
stroke should be at least four inches in length, and a longer one 
would probably be better. 

Pistons may be packed with leather or with metal rings. 
The latter are more durable, but the wear of the cylinder is 
greater, and they are now little used in spray pumps. Leather 
or candle-wicking is cheaper, and is at present preferred. 

The handle of a pump is a more important item than may at 
first be supposed. It requires considerable force to move a 
three-inch piston with the accompanying body of water, and at 
the same time to drive the liquid through a hose and nozzle 
with such force that it shall be broken into a spray. If the 
handle is long, the work can be done with comparative ease. 
By a long handle is meant one which is from 25 to 30 inches 
from the pivot to the outer end, the distance from the pivot to 
the piston-rod being from four to five inches additional. Full 
allowance is here made for the length of the handle, since many 
are made which are faulty in this respect. 

Air chambers have been almost universally regarded with 
great favor both by the manufacturers of pumps, and by those 
who purchase apparatus. The strong point in their favor is 
that they cause a more uniform flow of liquid, which, to a cer- 
tain extent, is highly desirable. The question is entirely one of 
degree, since the presence of an air cushion unquestionably pro- 
duces a more uniform flow. The assertion is also occasionally 
made that greater power may be obtained by the use of an air 
chamber, and that in consequence the spray is better and more 
easily thrown. Having many pumps and nozzles at my dis- 
posal, the different sides of the question have been examined. 
Some of the chambers have been tapped and aircocks inserted. 
Any desired amount of air could thus be displaced by the water, 



Spraying Devices and Macliinery. 211 

or the chamber could be completely filled. Different styles of 
nozzles were used with the varying capacity of the air cham- 
bers, so that the experiments might be as conclusive as possible. 
A sensitive steam gauge was also attached so that the pressure 
could be measured. 

The results showed that no greater force could be obtained 
whether a large or a small air space was present ; the pump 
did not appear to work more easily with a large chamber than 
with a small one, nor did the character of the spray appear to 
be modified. A great difference could be seen, however, in the 
length of time required for a nozzle to throw its best form of 
spray, since the character of the spray of most nozzles varies 
with the pressure of the liquid. It was also noticed that the 
flow of liquid continued much longer when a large air chamber 
was attached, but as the pressure decreased, the value of the 
spray decreased, so that only the main flow was suitable for 
making applications. As many nozzles are not provided with a 
stopcock for shutting off the flow of liquid, there is more or less 
loss of material w^henever the pumping ceases. There is also 
a loss of time and material when the pressure is increased, since 
the flow from the nozzle is delayed as the capacity of the air 
chamber increases. The work indicated that for all practical 
purposes an air chamber having a capacity of one pint to one 
quart is sufficient for any barrel pump or for any nozzle. It 
allows a quick application of pressure, and its almost immediate 
removal, while the air cushion is sufficiently large to produce a 
uniform spray. 

The agitation of most of the liquid insecticides and fungi- 
cides is, unfortunately, necessary ; otherwise the undissolved 
particles settle at the bottom of the tank, and, in consequence, 
the applications are uneven. Even a knapsack pimip will not 
maintain proper agitation, although it is thoroughly shaken by 
the man carrying it. Some certain means of agitating the 
liquid must, therefore, be adopted. Attempts have been made 
to force a return stream of the liquid into the barrel or tank, 
and the currents so produced were supposed to answer the 
desired purpose (see Fig. 28). But the results have not shown 
this to be the case, and this class of agitators is being gradu- 
ally abandoned. Another, and more effective, method is to 
attacli a paddle or dasher to the handle or other moving part of 



212 



The Spraying of Plants. 



the pump, so that at every stroke the liquid will be more or less 
thoroughly stirred (Fig. 29). These have proved successful so 
far as the agitation is concerned, but all who have worked a 
spray pump know that the labor is sufficiently severe without 
the addition of an attachment which necessarily consumes con- 
siderable force. Since the agitation must be accomplished, the 
use of some of these devices is one of the best ways out of the 
difficulty. My own practice has been, however, to insert a long- 
handled paddle into the 
opening through which the 
barrel is filled, and to stir 
the liquid in this manner, 
directly by hand, whenever 
it is necessary. This method 
is, on the whole, probably 
the easiest and most satis- 
factory. The work can be 
done as thoroughly as de- 
sired, and with but little 
extra labor. 

The liquid contained in 
large barrels or tanks can 
be agitated very easily by 
means of a permanent de- 
vice consisting of one or 
more paddles which are 
moved by a lever that pro- 
jects above the reservoir. 
At short intervals the lever 
may be moved until the fluid is thoroughly stirred. When long 
tanks are employed, several paddles should extend crosswise of 
the tank, near the bottom, and, if these are properly connected, 
one movement of the lever will cause a movement of all the 
paddles, thus quickly and easily agitating the contents of the 
tank. 

If a pump is to be used upon a barrel, as is the most common 
practice, the base-casting should be curved. It is better to turn 
the barrel on its side (Fig. 26) and fasten the pump in this 
manner. When it lies on its side, the sediment collects very 
near one central point, and can easily be dislodged and mixed 




Fig. 26. — A spray oiittit, the i)iimp properly 
attached to the barrel. 



Spraying Devices and Machi7iery. 213 

with the water. But, if the barrel is on end, the sediment col- 
lects in an even layer over the entire bottom, and it is much 
more difficult to maintain an even mixture. Large tanks are 
unsatisfactory in this respect, since the bottom is generally flat, 
and it is difficult to reach all the sediment with the agitator. 
When power sprayers are used, and the horse does the pump- 




FiG. 27. — A compact and powerful spray pump. 

ing, it does not make so much difference if the labor is harder, 
and the agitator can be attached to a moving part of the pump 
with very satisfactory results. 

Fig. 27 represents a type of pump sold by several manufac- 
turers, which answers most of the requirements above men- 
tioned. The air chamber is in the piston rod, where it is 
entirely out of the way, yet it is large enough for all practical 
purposes. These pumps are exceedingly compact, powerful, and 



214 



The Spraying of Plants. 



Fig. 28 



durable, and can be recommended with confidence 
illustrates another form very similar to the preceding. The 
air chamber surrounds the upper half of the pump, causing the 
enlargement. These two pumps are amongst the most compact 
and serviceable ones now sold. 




Fig. 28. — A good barrel pump, with a return pipe for agitation, and a strainer. 



Fig. 29 shows a style of pump of which there are several 
modifications (see also Fig. 34). The most striking feature of 
this type is the very large air chamber. Many of these sprayers 
are in use, and as they appear to give satisfaction they must 
have points of decided merit. Such air chambers are of par- 
ticular value upon power sprayers. 

Several manufacturers advertise a horizontal-acting pump, 
as shown in Fig. 30, These are of various sizes, the cylinder 



Spray mg Devices and Maeliiiiery. 215 

not being' smaller than 2\ inches, and in some it is as large as 
5 inches in diameter. These pumps are little used, as they 
seem to be harder to operate, and they are limited in their use 
more than the forms adapted to barrels. 




Fig. 29. — Spray pump, with lar^e air chamber; the paddle at the bottom of the 
barrel acts as an automatic apfitator. 



In some localities, semi-rotary pumps (Fig. 31) are in demand, 
no other form being thought equally effective. The action of 
these pumps, when new, leaves little to be desired. They are 
easily worked and powerful, and at first appear to approach the 




j,jg_ 30. -A powerful horizontal spray puuip- 

216 



Spraymg Devices and MaeJiinery. 



211 



ideal spray pump. Yet the manufacturers have admitted that 
these pumps are not so durable as the other styles, and 
this necessarily follows from the manner of their construction. 




Fig. 31. — Semi-rotary or "clock" pump. 



They are also more delicate, and will not bear the abuse which 
appears to have no effect upon other forms. When clear solu- 
tions are applied there is little to wear the inner parts, but with 
gritty preparations, such as the Bordeaux mixture, tlieii* days of 
service are not very long. 



218 The Spraying of Plants. 

Later and improved forms of the pump represented by Fig. 
12 have been extensively used during the season of 1895, with 
very satisfactory results. One cylinder has been replaced by a 
metal sheet, which is fastened at the base of the pump, but 
the outer end is free to be carried up and down at every stroke 
of the handle. This is one of the best and most easily operated 
agitators with which I am acquainted, and the pump has met 
with mu.ch favor, although but recently put upon the market. 

Barrel pumps have thus far proved the most satisfactory in 
spraying old orchards. The operation is too slow and tedious 
when smaller pumps are employed, and geared power sprayers 
are unable to cover the trees with sufficient uniformity. Engines 
have not as yet been sufficiently employed to warrant their rec- 
ommendation. When trees are comparatively small, a very 
serviceable outlit may be obtained by placing the barrel and 
pump on a light wagon. Two men can work most conveniently. 
One drives and pumps, while the other holds the nozzle, or the 
operations may be differently divided. If more than one lead 
of hose is in use, it will require a man for each hose, and another 
to pump. 

If the trees are large, such as old apple trees, an outfit similar 
to that shown in Fig. 32 will prove of great service. One man 
drives and pumps, while behind him is the barrel or tank. The 
tank may be of various shapes, some growers preferring hogs- 
heads, while others use a long, low tank, having a flat (Fig. 33) 
or rounded bottom, the latter being better, as the liquid can be 
more thoroughly agitated. Above this tank is a platform, 
which is from ten to fifteen feet from the ground. The men 
directing the spray stand upon this, and are prevented from 
falling by a rail which surrounds the platform. This elevation 
allows the spray to be throw^n to the tops of very high trees, 
with the assistance of only a short pole. A pole is an unwieldy 
instrument at best, and if proper nozzles are used it may be dis- 
pensed with in the majority of cases. The work can also be 
more thoroughly accomplished from above, as the parts of the 
tree are more easily reached, and the liquid does not fall back 
upon the men, as so frequently occurs when the spray is thrown 
from lower elevations. The man who drives is at a disadvan- 
tage, but if he is properly protected by rubber clothing, the 
position is rendered much less uncomfortable. 







Fig. 32, — An excellent spraying outtit for tall orchard trees. 
219 



220 



The Sprayhui of Plants. 



Many orchards are so thickly planted that an apparatus like 
the above can be driven through only with great difficulty. In 
such cases the branches should be cut so that the orchard may 
be penetrated in at least one direction. With good apparatus 
the trees may then be thoroughly treated. 

Later improvements in spraying machinery are the power 
sprayers, of which Fig. 3-1 represents one of the best. The 




Fig. 33. — A good rig for spraying orchards. 



illustration is so detailed that little need be said regarding the 
construction of the machine. The pumps are worked by means 
of a bar which is fastened to a crank. The crank is attached 
to wheels that connect with the large wheels by means of 
sprocket chains, and motion is obtained in this manner. Fig. 
35 represents another type of machine of this class. The liquid 
is applied by means of a rotary pump. Power machines are 
excellent for spraying all low-growing plants or small trees, but 



Spraying Devices and MaeJiinery. 



221 



tlie best work cannot be done in a bearing apple orchard, and 
tlie hand pnmps must be depended upon for the most efficient 
service. But for potatoes, nursery stock, vineyards, orchards of 
dwarf trees, tliese macliines will amply repay their cost, and 
with proper treatment will lessen the unpleasant features of 
spraying to a very great degree. Wherever sufficient work is 
at hand to warrant their purchase, they will be found indispen- 
sable when once used. 




Fig. 34. — Power sprayer. A, lever attached to the gearing ; D, bar moved by- 
means of a crank attached to the wheels ; BB, pumps which force the Hquid 
into the discharge hose ; (7, tank. 



As has already been stated on page 194, several machines 
have been built for the sole purpose of spraying potatoes. As a 
rule, those in which the liquid is applied with the aid of a force 
pump are to be preferred, although excellent machines may be 
found among those in which the liquid flows by the force of 
gravity. Some method of converting the fluid into a spray 
should, liowever, be present. Fig. 36 represents a machine in 
which this is done by means of a revolving brush, BB. Air 



222 



The Spraying of Plants. 



blasts are used by some for the same purpose with marked 
success. 

The best spray nozzle, so far as efficiency, simplicity, and 
cheapness are concerned, is the end of a hose and a man's 
thumb. Unfortunately the thumb gets sore and tired, and opera- 
tions must be suspended to wait for repairs. It is the nearest 
approach to the ideal nozzle yet devised, if it were only more 
practicable. It will do all that a good nozzle should do. It 
throws a fine mist-like spray, one that will " float in the air 




Fig. 85. — Power sp .;ct-, -ivith rotary pump. 



like a fog," or the particles of water may instantly be made 
coarser, and the water thus carried to a greater distance; or 
still coarser and the water leave the hose in the form of a solid 
stream. These changes all take place instantly (after a little 
practice), and it makes no difference whether the parts to be 
sprayed are a few inches or many feet away. This nozzle never 
clogs, but is cleaned automatically, and as quickly as the char- 
acter of the spray is varied. In fact it possesses all the desir- 
able qualities of a spray nozzle, except durability, and for this 
we must turn to the metals for aid. 



Spraying Devices and MacJiinery. 223 

All operators do not desire the same kind of spray even for 
the same kind of work. It is commonly said that the best 
spray is one which most nearly resembles a fog. This is true so 
far as the spray is concerned, but the trouble comes in applying 
it. A fine spray cannot be applied so advantageously as a 
coarser one, nor can it be applied so rapidly for the reason that 
the finer the spray the less liquid is thrown, and the smaller the 
area treated. Whenever the wind blows, a fog-like spray will go 
wherever the wind carries it, and not where the operator directs 




Fig. 36. — Potato sprayer ; the liquid flows by the force of gravity, and is spread by 
means of revolving brushes, BB\ A, rod attached to agitator ; T, tank. 



it. Sometimes this will be an advantage. It is especially so 
when the wind is blowing in the right direction. Yet when the 
other side of the tree is being treated the wind will come from 
the wrong direction, and much of the material is blown where 
it is not wanted. In addition to this, the work is more slowly 
performed, and whether it is more thoroughly done than when 
a coarser spray is used is still open to doubt. After having tried 
both kinds of sprays, it appears to the writer that if the parts to 
be treated are close by, a fine spi'ay is to he preferred, as then 
there is less waste and an even application may be made. If 



224 The Spraying of Plants. 

the parts to be treated are more removed, being situated from 
ten to twenty-five feet away, a coarser spray is wanted ; — the more 
distant the object, the coarser the spray. The work can thus be 
done much more rapidly, just as effectively (with the exception 
of some waste), and much more satisfactorily, than by the use of 
a fine spray. In case a fine spray is used, it is necessary to have 
a pole to carry the nozzle to the different parts of the tree, and 
this is as tedious as it is unpleasant. When a coarser spray is 
made, there is generally formed enough of the finer spray to float 
in the air and protect parts which are not directly reached by 
the operator. 

The finest sprays are produced by the eddy-chamber nozzles, 
and by those in which two streams of water strike each other 
at an angle. AVith such nozzles, t*ie spray can be made as fine 
as desired, the size of the outlet orifice being the main control- 
ling factor. For long-distance work, when the liquid is to be 
carried ten feet or more, the best spray is formed when the fluid 
is forced through two flat, parallel, metal surfaces. The greater 
the pressure, the greater will be the amount of fine spray and 
the farther will it be thrown. Although the ideal nozzle has 
not yet been made in metal, some of the forms now sold are 
approaching perfection. 

All good spray machinery is expensive, and only careless 
operators will neglect the ordinary methods of preserving it 
as long as possible. When the pump has been used in applying 
any of the preparations mentioned in Chapter IV., with the ex- 
ception of clear water, it should be cleaned. I^o insecticide nor 
fungicide should be allowed to stand within the pump, but clear 
water should be pumped through it before it is put away. It 
is well to oil all the working parts occasionall}", as a little oil at 
times may prevent the metal from being cut, and the pump will 
be thus preserved much longer than otherwise. Nozzles are also 
benefited by the same treatment. Oil can scarcely be used too 
freely on the inside of such apparatus, and an occasional coat of 
paint on the outside will assist materially in protecting the 
metal. The careless man pays dearly for his neglect. 



CHAPTER YI. 

THE ACTION OF INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. 

Spkayixg has become a common practice with compar- 
atively few cultivators. The majority still waver when it 
comes to doing the work, hoping that they may gather good 
crops even if the operation is not performed. Very few have 
doubts of its value, but for one reason or another, at the 
last moment nothing is done. Undoubtedly much of this 
hesitation is caused by the uncertainty whether as good 
results may be obtained by the novice as are obtained by those 
who have had experience in the work. I know of a farmer 
who owns a young bearing orchard, which almost every spring 
has promised an abundant harvest ; but when fall came and the 
time for harvesting the crop drew near, the apples which still 
hung on the trees were so full of worms and so distorted by 
fungi that the profits derived from their sale were indeed 
small. The man was so impressed by the good results of 
spraying as practiced l)y one of his neighbors who grows the 
same varieties of apples, that in 1894 he finally made prepara- 
tion to spray in earnest. He was advised as to the best 
methods of doing the work, and the proper materials were 
applied, yet at first he could not overcome the fear that his 
trees would not be just as thoroughly protected as others had 
been, and that in spite of the application the apples would 
turn out as they did in the past. But the fruit was fair, and 
his orchard will no doubt be regularly treated in the future. 

Such doubts are needless. Protection by spraying will be 
just as efficient for one man as for another, and provided the ene- 
mies of the plants are equally serious, the results in one case 
will be just as marked as they are in the other, if a few points 
are observed. Without wishing to encourage carelessness in 
Q 225 



226 The Spraying of Plmits. 

this matter, it may be said that few of tlie formulas now in use 
will fail to be effective even if they are slightly modified. 
The history of the several formulas need only be considered 
to show that this is the case. Spraying is not an exact 
science, and most of the methods allow of considerable modifi- 
cation. Spray, by all means, if the crojts are in need of it, even 
though the advice of the experienced is not always followed to 
the letter in regard to the best method of making the applica- 
tion or of preparing the materials. Follow such advice as 
closely as possible, but no serious consequences will result if 
slight deviations occur. Three points, however, cannot be too 
strongly emphasized : 

First, be on time. INIake an application when it will do the 
most good, and never allow that time to pass if it can possibly 
be avoided, Evei-y delay is of advantage to the parasite, and it 
will be used so well that in most cases the injury cannot be 
repaired. The destruction of one insect may mean the destruc- 
tion of hundreds, and one application made at the right time 
may mean, and generally does mean, the protection of a plant 
against millions of spores of fungi which are endeavoring to 
gain a foothold. Be ready for action at a moment's notice, 
and when the moment comes, spray ! 

Second, be thorough. When spraying a plant, spray it well. 
With a little care, a complete success may be obtained instead 
of only a partial one. When the work is finished, the grower 
should have the feeliug that it is well done, and then no fear as 
to the result need be entertained. Spraying is not always 
pleasant work, and the temptation to slight it is often strong; 
but the operator will be rewarded just to the extent to which 
he has been painstaking, and to that extent only. 

Third, apply sprays intelligently. This is really the most 
important factor in the work, although good crops can be 
obtained without it, provided directions are followed. The 
first two points cannot be neglected without injury to the 
crops, but this one can be. The crop is in need of the applica- 
tions only, but the grower should know the reasons for them, 
and should be in a position to modify his treatments so as to 
make them conform with the character of the insect or the 
disease which is being treated, and with the season. Every 
year and every day such knowledge will be of value. So 



The Treatment of Insects. ^2^21 

many things are still unknown, and so many points still in dis- 
pute, that personal knowledge and judgment about individual 
cases are not only desirable, but are very essential. Directions 
covering the majority of cases can be given, but now and then 
one will come up which seems to differ from all others, and it 
is then that this knowledge will prove most valuable. A few 
of the general principles upon which this work rests are men- 
tioned below. 

The principal organisms against which the cultivator has to 
contend are insects and fungi. They are widely different in 
their organization, and entirely different substances are required 
for their destruction. Any substance which is used to destroy 
or repel insects may be termed an insecticide ; and any sub- 
stance which destroys fungi, or which prevents their injurious 
growth on vegetation, is a fungicide. No substance, so far as 
known, will answer both purposes equally well. 

I. Upon Insects. 

Practically all the applications which are made to destroy in- 
sects are designed to act in one of two ways. The substance may 
be destined to enter the digestive system of the insect and thus 
cause death, just as many poisons cause death when taken into 
the stomachs of higher animals. This method is by far the 
cheapest, and when possible it is advisable to make use of it. 

The second method does not consist in putting poison on 
the food of the insect, but the material is put directly upon the 
insect itself. It then causes death either by stopping up the 
breathing pores, or it penetrates the outer coverings and so 
enters the body directly. This method cannot be used v:ith 
success against all insects, as some have very tough and dense 
coverings which are not readily penetrated by any material that 
we can use for the purpose. Beetles, for example, can scarcely 
be destroyed in this manner. But all soft-bodied insects, such 
as aphides, worms, and caterpillars, yield readily to the treat- 
ment if sufficient material comes in contact with their bodies. 

This method of killing insects by means of substances which 
cause death merely by penetrating the creature's body, is rather 
expensive, and it is resorted to only wdien the pest cannot be 
treated by poisoning its food. It thus comes that most worms 



228 The Spraying of Plants. 

and caterpillars are destroyed by means of poisons which are 
eaten, though they yield to the other treatment equally well. 

The food of many insects, however, cannot be poisoned, since 
they feed upon the juices of plants and do not eat the external 
coverings. It is fortunate that most of these insects have soft 
bodies, so that they yield readily to treatment if the ]3oison 
comes in contact with them. Their mouth parts are formed for 
penetrating the external coverings of plants to a depth suffi- 
cient to reach the sap ; just as the mosquitoes' bills are in the 
habit of penetrating human kind. All aphides belong to this 
class, as well as the true bugs, these having mouth parts which 
are adapted to suck, but not to chew^ The utter uselessness of 
covering a plant with poisons to protect it from these pests 
will readily be seen. No matter how thick the poison may be, 
the insect's beak wdll penetrate this poisonous layer, and it 
will take no food until the beak lias passed the limit of the 
poison and is deeply buried in the tissues of the plant. 

From the above it wall be seen that : 

(a) To destroy chewing insects, such as the potato beetle, 
poisons must be evenly distributed over those parts upon which 
the insects feed, and this may in some cases be done even before 
the insect is present, or is visible. Only those poisons which 
cause death after being eaten should be used. 

(b) To destroy sucking insects, such as plant lice, the ma- 
terials must be distributed iqjon the insects as evenly as possi- 
ble, and it is useless to make any application before the insect 
has appeared. Only those poisons which kill by coming in con- 
tact with the insect's body should be used. 

First determine what kind of a pest it is that needs treat- 
ment, then select the proper materirJ from among those men- 
tioned in Chapter IV. ^ 

II. Upon Fungi. 

Among fungi we find many serious enemies. It is difficult to 
tell just what a fungus is, but some of the principal character- 
istics may be mentioned. A fungus is a plant ; but unlike 

1 The complete transformations which many insects undergo before maturing 
are as follows: (a) the egg; (b) the larva, grub, or caterpillar; (c) the pupa or 
chrysalis ; {d) the imago or matured adult insect. 



The Treatment of Fungi. 229 

flowering plants, it possesses no clilorophylL Chlorophyll is the 
green-colored protoplasm foiiud in flowering plants, and it is the 
only substance we know through which plants change crude food 
to nutritive material. We must conclude, therefore, that fungi 
do not prepare their own food, but feed upon organic matter 
which is already adapted to their wants. They possess no 
leaves, flowers, nor seeds. That part of any fungus which is 
of most interest to the horticulturist is composed of long, fine 
threads, either growing separately or in bundles ; these threads 
are known as hyplipe, and collectively they form the mycelium 
or vegetative portion of the fungus. The mycelium corresponds 
to the roots and stems of flowering plants. 

Spores, which are organs performing the same office as the 
seeds of flowering plants, are produced by this mycelium either 
directly, or upon branches (sometimes called sporophores) which 
are thrown out. These sporophores cause the white downy 
appearance seen upon grape leaves affected with the downy 
mildew. A spore, strictly speaking, is not a seed, for a seed 
contains a young plant, while a spore does not, being usually 
composed of only one cell. If a spore finds the proper condi- 
tions of heat and moisture it will germinate and send out a 
fine filament, which, if nourished, grows and branches, and 
eventually a plant like the original will be produced. 

JMost fungi in the North produce two kinds of spores, known 
as the summer and the winter spores. The summer spores are 
usually borne upon the exterior of the host-plant, or the plant 
on which the fungus grows. These spores ripen quickly and 
propagate the fungus rapidly. But if they do not germinate 
soon after ripening they lose their vitality. 

The winter spores are usually produced within the tissues of 
the host-plant, commonly in the leaves and fruit. They are 
the spores which live through the winter ; but in the spring, 
under favorable circumstances, they germinate, and thus the 
fungus is again developed. 

Fungi may be divided into two general classes : those grow- 
ing upon dead and decaying matter, or saprophytes ; those feed- 
ing ^^pon living tissue, or parasites. By far the larger portion 
possessing interest to the horticulturist belong to the latter 
class, for in this are included the fungi which do so much 
injury to cultivated plants. 



230 The Spraying of Plants. 

Yet all parasitic fungi do not attack the host-plant in the 
same manner. Some immediately penetrate into the interior 
tissues, and there they flourish, being well protected from outer 
influences by the exterior covering of the plant. The fungi 
causing all the more serious diseases develop in this mamier, 
and in fact the vast majority of X3lant diseases are caused by 
such organisms. There are others, however, in which the 
body of the fungus is almost entirely upon the surface of the 
host-plant, only a comparatively small number of threads pene- 
trating the tissues in order to obtain nourishment. These 
parasites can be rubbed off, and unless the attack has been 
very severe, the green, healthy tissue will be seen underneath. 
This class may for convenience be termed "surface fungi," to 
distinguish them from those which grow within the host-plant; 
it is represented by the common powdery mildew of the grape, 
one mildew of the gooseberry, one of the strawberry, and a few 
others. 

The life histories of the various fungi must form the basis 
for any methods of treatment which may be adopted. During 
certain stages of their existence, parasitic fungi may be checked 
quite easily, and at such times the remedies should be applied. 

It is evident that when a fungus has once become established 
inside the host-plant, it cannot be reached without destroying the 
tissues of the host in the aftected places, which is by no means 
desirable. The fungus must be destroyed before it enters the 
host ; in other words, the spores must be killed as soon as they 
germinate, or better, they must not be alloAved to germinate. 
All applications must be preventive, not curative, since a cure 
is practically impossible when the fungus is once established, 
unless it grows upon the surface of the host. 

The line of treatment indicated is this : to cover the stems 
and foliage of the cultivated plant with some substance that 
will destroy the spores which may be present, as soon as they 
germinate, or with one that will have the power of prevent- 
ing this germination. If that is done, the plant will remain 
healthy, so far as fungi are concerned ; otherwise it will not, 
unless, indeed, no fungus attacks it. Several substances which 
destroy these spores, as well as the surface fungi, have already 
been found. They are easily applied, safe, and effective, and 
any grower who suffers his fruit to be ruined by these para- 



The Effect upon the Ho8t-Plant. 231 

sites is, as a rule, deserving of his loss, for means of destroying 
the pests are at his command. It is largely the grower's fault if 
his apples are scabby, if his grapes are mildewed, and if his 
potatoes rot in the field. Spraying is no longer an experiment, 
it is a necessity; and those who recognize this fact are the 
ones who are reaping the rewards. 

III. Upox the Host-Plant. 

Insecticides and fungicides are applied solely for their action 
upon the organisms it is desired to destroy, since in other respects 
most of the preparations possess no value. If properly applied 
they are harmless to the plants, and should not in any way 
intei-fere with their proper growth nor with the sale of the 
products. When some of the mineral preparations, however, 
are too freely used late in the season, the appearance of the 
crop may reduce to a considerable extent its market value, 
although the product may be still as wholesome as if untreated. 

Fears have also been entertained that some substances are 
dangerous even when not visible, on account of their effect 
upon the crop, which was supposed to be poisoned. This sub- 
ject was well agitated when Paris green and London purple 
began to be commonly used in the destruction of the potato 
beetle. Many analyses were made, but no arsenic could be 
found, either in the tubers or in the parts above ground, and 
soon all fear of arsenical poisoning disappeared, and potatoes 
treated with the arsenites were used without question. Another 
equally groundless objection was raised in England regarding 
American apples which had been sprayed for the canker-worm 
or codlin-moth. It was said that the bloom found on American 
apples consisted largely of the arsenic which had been applied 
to the trees to destroy insects, and that such apples were unfit 
for use. These reports have led to many chemical examina- 
tions of sprayed fruit, and only in rare cases has even a trace of 
arsenic been found. It is only when very late applications are 
made, such as are utterly useless, that any of the poison is found 
upon the fruit, and then the quantities are so minute that they 
could in no way cause injury to the consumer. But even though 
all the poison sprayed upon the apples in making necessary 
treatments should remain there undisturbed, a person would be 



232 The Spraying of Plants. 

obliged to eat at one meal eight or ten barrels of the fruit in 
order to consume enough arsenic to cause any injury. As a 
matter of fact, however, the poison all disappears during the 
growth of the apples, and these are as wholesome as if no 
treatment had been made, or even more so. 

Similar objections have also been raised in the case of grapes 
sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture. In the fall of 1891, the 
board of health of New York city seized considerable quantities 
of grapes which showed the presence of Bordeaux mixture, and 
threw them into the river. The following report of the board 
appeared after an investigation had been made : 

" 1. A copper salt is found only upon a very small part of the 
grapes offered for sale, and the grapes which are to be avoided 
are easily recognized by the greenish-colored substance upon 
the berries and stems. 

"2. Whenever the substance is apparent upon the berries or 
stems, the grapes should be washed before they are used as 
food or in tlie manufacture of wine. 

" 3. The board urges all dealers and consignors in this city 
to advise shippers and consignors of grapes to send no more 
grapes to the market upon which this substance is apparent. 
The board further states that it does not object to the use of 
Bordeaux mixture as recommended by the proper authorities ; 
but such mixture, or any mixture containing poisonous sub- 
stances, should not be sprayed or otherwise placed upon the grapes 
immediately before or after they have matured, and should not 
appear upon them when sent to market or offered for sale." 

This subject is equally interesting from a hygienic stand- 
point, for whether grapes are sold in the open market or not, 
their effect upon the consumer should be understood. The 
following paragraph is a clear and concise statement of the 
facts bearing upon the question : i " Accepting, then, 0.5 gram 
as the maximum amount of copper in any of the forms dis- 
cussed that may with safety be daily absorbed, let us see how 
these figures compare with the quantity of this metal found 
in connection with properly sprayed fruits, as well as some 
other foods and drinks. Analyses to determine the amount 
of copper in sprayed grapes have been made in Germany, 
France, America, and other countries. The results of all these 

^ U. S. Dept. AgHe. Farmers'' BuVetin No. T, 19. 



The Ejfect upon the Host-Plant. 233 

show that grapes sprayed intelligently rarely contain more 
tlian 5 milligrams (0.005 gram) of copper per kilogram, the 
average being from 2,^ to o milligrams per kilogram. In 
other words, 1,000,000 ponnds of grapes sprayed in the usual 
way with the Bordeaux mixture would contain from 2|^ to 5 
pounds of copper. To reduce the figures still further, each 
1000 pounds of fruit would contain 17.5 to 35 grains of copper. 
On this basis an adult may eat from 300 to 500 pounds of 
sprayed grapes x^er day without fear of ill effects from the 
copper. This shows how ridiculously absurd are the state- 
ments that fruits properly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture 
or any other coj)per compound are poisonous." 

The effect of applying soluble arsenic upon foliage has been 
considered on page 117, but there still remains a point in regard 
to the injury done by arsenical poisons to animals consuming 
the grass beneath. Professor Cook has carefully experimented 
in this direction, and his results are so conclusive that they are 
Jiere given in full : " In tree No. 1 a thick paper was placed 
under one-half of a rather small apple tree. The space covered 
was six by twelve feet, or seventy-two square feet. The paper 
was left till all dripping ceased. As the day was quite windy, 
the dripping was rather excessive. In this case every particle 
of the poison that fell from the tree was caught on the paper. 
Dr. R. C. Kedzie analyzed the poison and found four-tenths (.4) 
of a grain [of arsenic]. Tree No. 2 was a large tree with very 
thick foliage. Underneath this tree was a thick carpet of 
clover, blue grass, and timothy just in bloom. The space cov- 
ered by the tree was fully sixteen feet square, or equal to two 
hundred and fifty-six square feet. As soon as all dripping had 
ceased, the grass under the tree was all cut very gently and 
very close to the ground. This was taken to the chemical 
laboratory and analyzed by Dr. R. C. Kedzie. TJiere were 
found 2.2 grains of arsenic. Now, as our authorities say that 
one grain is a poisonous dose for a dog, two for a man, ten for 
a cow, and twenty for a horse, there would seem to be small 
danger from pasturing our orchards during and immediately 
after spraying, especially as no animal would eat the sprayed 
grass exclusively. To test this fully, I sprayed a large tree 
over some bright, tender grass and clover. I then cut the 
clover carefully, close to the ground, and fed it all to my horse. 



234 The Spraying of Plants. 

It was all eaten up in an hour or two, and the horse showed no 
signs of injury. This mixture, remember, was of double the 
proper strength, was applied very thoroughly, and all the grass 
fed to and eaten by the horse. This experiment was repeated 
with the same result. I next secured three sheep. These were 
kept till hungry, then put into a pen about a tree under which 
was rich, juicy, June grass and clover. The sheep soon ate the 
grass, yet showed no signs of any injury. This experiment was 
repeated 'twice with the same result. It seems to me that these 
experiments are crucial, and settle the matter fully. The analy- 
ses show that there is no danger, the experiments confirm the 
conclusion. 

" Thus we have it demonstrated that the arsenites are effec- 
tive against the codlin-moth, that in their use there is no danger 
of poisoning the fruit, and when used properly no danger to the 
foliage nor to stock that may be pastured in the orchard." ^ 

The danger following the use of copper compounds on foliage 
is naturally even less than when a form of arsenic is applied. 
One case is on record in which poisoning has followed when 
grape foliage was eaten by sheep, this having been sprayed 
with the Bordeaux mixture.- Since sprayed foliage is probably 
never fed regularly to stock, there need be no cause of appre- 
hension in this respect. 

The extent to which copper is absorbed by foliage still 
remains an open question. The researches of Millardet and 
Gayon show that a certain amount of copper is absorbed and 
retained by the cuticle of the leaf.^ The investigations of 
Rumm, however, show that such is not the case.^ If the 
copper is actually absorbed the quantities are exceedingly 
minute. That it possesses a stimulating action upon foliage 
is also doubtful. Lime may have such an effect, since several 
cases are on record in which the application of Bordeaux mix- 
ture produced a greener appearance of the healthy foliage. 

1 A. J. Cook, Ann. Itej>t. Mich. Bd. Ayric. 1889, 320. 

2 Wiener Landw. Ztg. 1802, 494. 

3 Jou)\ d\ig. Prat. 1887, Jan. 27, 123, and Feb. 3, 156. 

* "Ueber die Wirkung der Kupferpraparate bei Bekampfiiug der sogenannten 
Blattfallkrankheit der Weiiirebe." £er. d. Deut. But. Gen. Bd. 11, Heft 2, 1893, 
79-83; Ibid. Heft 7, 445-152. See, also, adverse critical review by Ziinmermann 
in Bot. CeniralU. 1893, No. 23, 308 ; Nos. 29, 30, 119, 120 ; and Aderiiold in Bot. 
Zeit. No. 11, 1893, 162. Cited by Fairchild in Bull. 6, Sec. Veg. Path. U. S. Dejjt. 
Agric. 27. 



The Ejfect tipon the Soil 235 

The benefits derived have not yet been fully determined. It 
has been estimated that the germination of spores of certain 
fungi may be prevented by solutions of lime containing 1 j^art 
to 10,000 of the liquid ; or iron sulphate, 1 part to 100,000 of 
water ; or copper sulphate, 1 part to 10.000,000 of water. ^ This 
readily explains the energetic action of the copper compounds, 
and why such small amounts may be applied to advantage. 

For further information concerning the action of copper 
compounds when applied to plants, consult R. Otto, " Unter- 
suchungen liber das Verhalten der Pflanzenwurzeln gegen Kup- 
fersalzlosungen" {Zeitschrift fur PJianzenkranl-lieitcn, Bd. iii. 
1893, Heft 6). The plants studied in these investigations 
were Pliaseolus vulgaris, Zea Mays, Pisum sativum. It was 
found that " copper exercises a poisonous influence upon the 
plants, it interferes with the development of the roots and 
lessens the activity of the functions of the plant, or kills the 
latter outright, when the roots of the plants are growing in 
more or less concentrated solutions of copper sulphate." It was 
also found that practically no copper was absorbed by the roots, 
and the parts above ground were entirely free from the metal. 
See review in Botanisches Centralhlatt, 1893, Vol. 55, 340-312. 

See also, A. Tschirch, "Das Kupfer vom Standpunkte der ge- 
richtlichen Chemie, Toxicologic, und Hygiene. Mit besonderer 
Beriicksichtigung der Reverdissage der Conserven und der 
Kupferung des Weins und der Kartoifeln." Stuttgart (F. Enke), 
1893. The entire question of the use of copper compounds 
upon cultivated plants is thoroughly discussed by the author. 
Jn general his conclusion is, "to remove all copper from articles 
of diet means forbidding the plant to absorb it from the soil, 
and also considering as injurious to health the use of bread and 
chocolate." See Botanisches Cenlralblatt, 1893, Vol. 55, 170-175, 
for a detailed review of the work. 

IV. Upox the Soil. 

Doubts have been very frequently expressed as to the final 
outcome of the continual addition of insecticides and fungicides 
to the soil, it being supposed that the roots of the plants as 
well as the soil itself would eventually suffer. Scientific inves- 

1 MiUardet et Gayon, Jour. cVAg. Prat. 1885, Nov. 12, 707. 



236 TJie Spraying of Plants. 

tigation has shown these fears to be groundless, as it has so 
many other doubts formerly entertained. The following ex- 
tracts should prove sufficiently convincing even to the most 
skeptical : ^ 

" Former analyses of unsprayed top soils of the station farm 
have shown no trace of copper in their composition. Recent 
analyses of top soils taken from an old potato field which has 
received many applications of Paris green (an aceto-arsenite of 
copper), show from three ten-thousandths to three and one-third 
ten-thousandths of one per cent of metallic copper. Analyses of 
top soils from a portion of the same field to which Bordeaux 
mixture was applied last season for the potato blight show 
four ten-thousandths of one per cent of metallic copper, equal 
to about sixteen ten-thousandths of one per cent in the form of 
copper sulphate. English writers frequently speak of nsing 
from 22 to 32 pounds of copper sulphate per acre in one season's 
application of Bordeaux mixture for potato blight. To impreg- 
nate such soil as that which was nsed in the above analysis to 
the depth of one foot with one per cent of copper sulphate would 
require about 32,625 pounds of the sulphate, which, if applied 
at the rate of 30 pounds a year, would require in its application 
nearly 1100 years, provided that none of it escaped in drainage." 

Some experiments conducted by Bailey in 1895 indicate that 
practically no danger is to be feared from very heavy applica- 
tions of arsenites to soil. His conclusion is as follows : " The 
arsenic which falls upon the soil seems to become or to remain 
in an insoluble condition, and passes downward, if at all, to a 
very little distance, and then only by the mechanical action of 
water in carrying it through spaces in the soil."- 

The results obtained by a careful European investigation ^ 
are also inserted here, that the subject may be viewed from 
different standpoints. The only conclusion to be drawn from 
these extracts is that proper applications of insecticides and 
fungicides will apparently never cause any appreciable injury 
either to the roots of plants or to the soil : 

" 1. Soluble copper salts are injurious to plants; the injurious 

1 Beach, Country Gentleman}, 1S92, 6S. 

2 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 101, 502. 

3 Haselhoff, "Injurious action of solutions of the sulphate and the nitrate of 
copper upon soil and plants," LandwirthschaftUche Jahrbueher, 1892, 2T2-276. 



The Effect upon the Croj). 237 

action begins when 10 milligrams of copper oxide are present in 
1 liter of water, but when only 5 milligrams per liter are present 
no marked effects can be seen. 

"• 2. If solutions of copper sulphate and of copper nitrate are 
applied to soils, the plant food present, especially lime and 
potash, are dissolved and washed away; the copper oxide is 
absorbed by the soil. As a result of these two processes, the 
fertility of the soil is more or less decreased. 

"3. Barley and oats suffer more than grass from solutions of 
copper sulphate and copper nitrate ; copper sulphate is more 
injurious to corn than to beans. 

"4. Tlie injurious action of copper sulphate and copper 
nitrate is counteracted if an excess of the carbonate of lime is 
present in the soil. But as soon as this excess has been acted 
upon, the injurious processes take place in the same manner as 
in soils in which no lime is found." 

V. Upon the Value of the Crop. 

It is scarcely necessary to enter into details regarding the 
benefits derived fron) proper applications of insecticides and 
fungicides. Experiment stations and private growers have 
many times demonstrated that the market value of the product 
is increased to such an extent that the cost of materials and of 
labor is returned manj^-fold to the grower, whenever proper 
applications have been made. Indeed, the conditions now are 
such that it is as necessary to spray certain crops as it is to cul- 
tivate them. Doubts are no longer entertained concerning tlie 
treatment of potatoes with arsenites ; the operation is generally 
performed as one of the regular duties in obtaining a crop. The 
majority of the best apple growers have come to feel the same 
concerning apples. They spray with insecticides for the codlin- 
moth and other insects, and with the Bordeaux mixture for 
fungous diseases. The operations have passed the stage of 
experiment, and are now considered in the light of a necessity. 

The grape is another striking illustration of the same truth. 
In many sections, especially in the southern states, it is practi- 
cally impossible to obtain a sound crop on account of the abun- 
dance of fungous diseases. There it is not only a question of 
profits, for it is difficult to obtain any crop whatever. Peaches, 



238 The Spraying of Plants. 

plums, cherries, quinces, all the small fruits, and many vegeta- 
bles, will generally repay proper treatment. 

A secondary benefit is also derived in those products which 
are stored. Unsound fruit will not keep, for decay generally 
begins in a part wdiich has already been injured. It has been 
said that sprayed fruit will keep longer than that which has not 
been treated, even though both are free from blemishes. The 
question is open to doubt, however, since no decisive experiments 
have yet been made. But the more nearly perfect the stored crop 
is when put in, the longer it will keep and the greater value it 
will possess, other conditions being equal. 

It must not be inferred from the preceding remarks that all 
crops should be sprayed. The question " Does spraying pay ? " 
can best be answered by the grower, and he must be his own 
judge regarding the advisability of treatments. Let the question 
be considered from the proper standpoint and the matter will be 
simplified. The final test in regard to the making of treatments 
may be stated in this form : does the difference between the mar- 
ket value of sound fruit, and the value of the product obtained 
when no treatments are made, warrant the expense of purchas- 
ing materials and the labor of making the applications? The 
grower knows the price received for his crop ; he also knows the 
price paid for perfect or fancy crops ; the difference between 
the two, so far as injuries from insects and fungi are concerned, 
shows to what extent the crop may be benefited by treatments. 
It is then a simple matter to determine if the applications will 
pay. It wdll be noted that little question regarding the efficiency 
of the applications is here entertained. It is taken for granted, 
and with good reason, that proper treatment must produce the 
desired result. The arsenites will destroy all chewing insects, 
with scarcely an exception, and the copper compounds will pre- 
vent injury from most fungi; these are established facts, but 
it remains for the grower to apply them. There probably 
exists an economical remedy for every disease of plants; the 
vast majority of these diseases are now nndei- control, and 
although a few obstinate cases still exist, the future is encourag- 
ing when we consider the progress made in the past. Intelli- 
gence, knowledge, and good judgment, when assisted by in- 
secticides and fungicides, wdll prove more than a match for 
these organisms which prey upon the products of man's labors. 



Part II. 

SPECIFIC BIRECTICKS FOB SPBAYIJYG 
CULTIVATED PLAJVTS, 



ALMOND. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Blight; Almond Disease {Cercosjyora ci7'cumcissa,Sacc.). 
— Description. This disease is especially serious in California, 
the trees often being practically defoliated during the summer. 
The fungus attacks the leaves and the stems. Upon the 
former it produces small circular spots, the diseased areas 
being more or less restricted by the small veins of the leaves. 
The spots are about an eighth of an inch in diameter, and 
upon the death of the tissue the discolored areas fall from the 
leaves, causing an appearance similar to that of the shot-hole 
fungus upon plum foliage. Diseased stems also show distinct 
spots of circular or oval outline. The dead tissue soon falls 
out, producing a pitted appearance on the surface of the af- 
fected twigs. 

Treatment. N. B. Pierce, who has thoroughly studied this 
disease, recommends spraying the trees with the ammoniacal 
carbonate of copper, making the first application before the 
trees bloom, the second when the trees are in full leaf, and 
the third four weeks later.i 

1 Gallowa)^ Ann. Eejh U. S. Com. of Agric 1892, 232. 
239 



240 



The Spraying of Plmits. 



APPLE. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Bitter Rot; Ripe Rot (Gkeosporiuin fnictlgenum, Berk. G. 
versicolor?). — Description. Apples are often seriously injured, 
especially in some of tlie southern states, by a rot which causes 




\ 




Fig. 87. — The bitter-rot of apples. 

a softening of the tissues of the fruit, and changes them from 
their normal color to a brown (Fig. 37). This rot " takes fruit 
at any stage of its growth from the time it is about three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter until it is ripe."^ It is by 

1 Garman, Ay. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1893, Bull. 44-, 4. 



Apple. 241 

no means uncommon in the northern states, and appears to 
be particularly destructive to the earlier varieties. Early 
Harvest, Sweet Bough, and others are very subject to the dis- 
ease. Any part of the apple may be first attacked, and when 
the fungus has once gained a foothold it spreads very rapidly. 
The older portion, or the part first attacked, soon bears small 
black pimples, and it is said that the tissue beneath them has 
an exceedingly bitter taste, which has given the disease its 
name. 

Treatment, (xarmani recommends the use of Bordeaux mix- 
ture for preventing tlie development of the disease. lie obtained 
the greatest benefit from applications made as follows : First, 
before the leaves expanded; second, soon after the apples had 
set ; third, about fourteen days later ; fourth, four weeks after 
the preceding. In this manner " thirty-one and one-sixth per 
cent of the whole number of apples borne by the sprayed tree 
during the season were saved from the rot." 

The disease has also been successfully treated by the use of 
the sulphide of potassium. The aramoniacal carbonate of 
copper gave similar results. These last experiments are inter- 
esting from the fact that the first application was not made till 
about the middle of August. Earlier applications are, however, 
advisable. 

Black Rot (SjjJicerojms malorum, Berk.). — Description. The 
external characters of this disease are practically identical with 
those of the Bitter Rot. The remedies to be used are also the 
same. 

Brown Rot. See under Cherry. 

Powdery Mildew {Podosplicera Oxyccmthce,DeBM'y). — Descrip- 
tion. This fungus attacks the foliage of young apple seedlings 
very soon after the unfolding of the leaves, and continues 
its growth throughout the summer, very much weakening the 
plants, and making them unfit for budding purposes. The dis- 
ease is especially serious in the southern states. The affected 
leaves have a grayish appearance which is caused by a powdery 
substance. This gray powder consists of the parts of the fungus 
which project beyond the leaf tissue. The leaf soon dries and 
is rendered worthless. 

Treatment. The trouble has been successfully controlled by 

1 Garman, Ay. Agric. Exi). Sta. 1893, Bull. 44, 5. 
B 



242 The Spraying of Plants. 

the Section of Vegetable Pathology at Washington, and the 
following are the conclusions reached : ^ 

" 1. The disease can be effectually prevented by the applica- 
tion of the ammoniacal solution of carbonate of copper. 

" 2. In the nursery the total cost of the treatment need not 
exceed twelve cents per 1000 trees. 

" 3. The first application should be made when the leaves are 
about one-third grown, and should be followed by at least five 
others at intervals of ten or twelve days." 

Rust {Rcestelia pirata, Thax., and Gymnosporangium macropus, 
Link.). — Description. The fungus which causes the rust of 
apples is one of the most peculiar in which the horticulturist 
is interested. Unlike many fungi, this one lives upon two host- 
plants during its course of development. These host-plants are 
the apple, and the cedar or juniper. There are probably several 
species of rusts which attack cultivated apples,^ but the histories 
of all are essentially the same. The most common one is now 
supposed to be Roestalia pirata, Thax.^ 

The effects of this fungus upon the apple are first noticeable 
during the latter part of May, or in early June. The leaves are 
then dotted with bright yellow spots, the so-called rust; the 
fruit is also attacked about the same time. Such fruit becomes 
worthless, as the growth is increased at the diseased point, and 
the swollen part produces spores, which ruins the apples. Spores 
are also produced upon the under side of the leaves. They ap- 
pear and ripen during midsummer. They will not germinate 
and grow upon either the leaves or fruit of the apple, but they 
will develop the fungus upon the cedar. There the mycelium 
enters the tissues, and as growth advances, enlargements appear 
upon the branches of the tree. Such swellings, or " cedar-apples," 
as they are called, are from half an inch to almost two inches in 
diameter; they become full grown early in spring. During 
April and May, horn-shaped masses an inch or more in length 
are produced by the cedar-apple. They are of a bright yellow 
color and can readily be seen among the green branches of the 
cedars. Upon these soft, yellow bodies the spores are borne; 
these spores will not grow upon cedars, but only upon the leaves 

1 Atui. Rep. U. S. Com. Agric. 1889, 415. 

2 Byron D. Halsted, Ann. Hep. U. S. Com. Agric. ISSS, 376. 

3 Scribner, " Fungous Disea.ses of the Grape and other Plants," 1890, 84. 



Apple. 243 

or fruit of the apple. They ripen in spring, and consequently it 
is at this season of the year that the apple trees must be pro- 
tected. Unfortunately, when a tree has once become infected, 
it seems that the mycelium of the rust may remain in the buds 
and branches for years, and in the spring when the young leaves 
have formed, the characteristic yellow spots may again appear, 
although no new infection has taken place. The disease is 
sometimes so serious that the tree loses all its foliage, and this 
alone would ruin the crop, although the apples themselves may 
not be attacked. 

Treatment. It is difficult to combat the apple rust successfully. 
Since apple trees are attacked by spores which are produced upon 
cedar trees, it naturally follows that by removing all cedars we 
also remove the source of the disease. Cutting and burning 
the cedar-apples before the appearance of the yellow horns will 
answer the same purpose. In many cases, however, such a 
course is impracticable on account of the abundance of the 
trees. Scribner advises ^ the removal of all badly diseased trees 
in the orchard, as w^ell as the worst branches on trees which are 
not seriously attacked. Then, to prevent further injury from 
the fungus, spray both large and small trees with some good 
fungicide, as the Bordeaux mixture. The applications should 
be made as soon as the first leaves appear. Two applications 
should be sufficient, the second one being made eight or ten days 
after the first. During rainy seasons it may be well to repeat 
the operation a third time. The planting of resistant varieties 
is one of the best methods of escaping the disease. See Quince. 

Scab {Fusicladium dendriticurn, Fckl.). — Description. This 
fungus attacks the fruit and the leaves of both apple and pear 
trees. Upon the fruit it forms dark, circular spots, the largest 
being about half an inch in diameter (Fig. 38). These spots 
are often close together or unite to form surfaces which may 
extend over a considerable area. The centers of the spots are 
dark brown or black in color, but at the edges there is a light 
gray or white circle. This appearance is due to the separation 
of the outer skin, or cuticle, from the tissue beneath. When 
the diseased area is large, it generally cracks, and then the 
hard, brown tissue within the apple may be seen (Fig. 39). 
Growth is cliecked in the diseased portions and the fruit is 

1 Orchard and Garden, 1S90, Vol. xii. July, 134. 



244 The Sp^^aying of Plants. 

usually one-sided, sometimes to such an extent that the blossom 
end and the stem are close together. Isolated spots do not 
seriously injure the apple, but frequently its market value is 
thereby considerably reduced. 

The appearance of the disease upon the leaves is similar to 
that upon the fruit, but the light-colored edge is wanting. The 
parts attacked are circular or oval, and where several spots have 
run together the outline is irregular. The first indication of 
the presence of the fungus on the foliage is the appearance of 




Fig. 38. — Fall Pippiu apple disfigured by scab. 

small, light green areas which are easily distinguished when the 
leaf is held up to the light. In a few days the central portions 
of these areas become raised, causing the leaf to become moi-e 
or less distorted. The color at the same time changes to a dull 
brownish-black, which is plainly visible upon the upper side of 
the leaf. This causes the leaf to curl, the concave or hollow 
side being underneath ; the edges of tlie leaf often become 
brown and torn. (For colored plate of scab, see Cornell Bull. 84.) 
The scab is undoubtedly the most serious fungous disease 
with which the apple grower has to contend. No other disease 
annually ruins such a large percentage of the crop. From the 



Apple. 



245 



fact that the fungus also grows upon the leaves, it frequently 
occurs that entire orchards are defoliated. The result is that 
the tree receives so little nourishment that it may not bear a 
profitable crop for several years, even though during this time 
it is kept free from the disease. Wherever apples are grown, 
they suffer more or less from tlie parasite. Some years the 




Fig. 39. — Severe attack of apple scab upon fruit and foliage. 



injury may be so slight that it is scarcely noticed, and during 
others it may attack a tree with such intensity that there is 
scarcely enough fruit or foliage left to tell the tale of the cause 
of the destruction. Apple growers in western New York and 
in southern Micliigan will bear evidence of the condition of 
orchards in the summer and fall of 1892 and 189o. The trees, 
especially in Michigan, appeared as if burned by fire, and it was 



246 The Spraying of Plants. 

said that in some counties there was not produced one car-load 
of first-class fruit. It is no wonder that apple-growing does not 
always pay. The wonder is that it ever does pay, when the 
care given the orchard is considered. The causes of the many 
failures are principally two: first, the neglect of the top, as 
regards pruning, spraying, and similar operations ; second, the 
neglect of the roots, as regards feeding and the condition of 
the soil. It rests entirely with the grower if his trees shall 
produce scabby fruit or perfect fruit. He can make his choice, 
and the outcome will be as he chooses. In this statement, no 
variety, however susceptible it may be to the attacks of the scab, 
is excepted. Some varieties, as the Spitzenberg, Fameuse, Fall 
Pippin, Early Harvest, and in many localities the Baldwin, 
seldom produce uniformly good fruit, and with few exceptions, 
the last has been far from perfect during the past few years. 
Ben Davis, King, Fallawater, and many other varieties are not 
nearly so much affected by the scab.i These varieties need less 
care and often produce very fair crops without any special 
attention, but in such cases they generally bear in years of 
plenty, when prices run low except for extra fine fruit. 

Treatment. Treatment of the aj)ple scab should begin early in 
the season. This was forcibly shown in the spring of 1892. ^ 
The first application, using Bordeaux mixture, was made June 
13, about one week after the blossoms had fallen from the trees. 
At the time of the second application, June 22, small portions 
affected with the scab fungus could occasionally be found upon 
the a]3ples in places thickly covered by the Bordeaux mixture 
previously applied. These portions were undoubtedly attacked 
before the first application was made. As this occurred soon 
after the blossoms fell, it is clear that the trees were sprayed too 
late. They should receive at least one application before the 
blossoms open. The value of this has been demonstrated in 
another way. D. G. Fairchild observed the growing mycelium 
upon apple twigs even before the buds broke, and this would 
indicate that for very susceptible varieties it may be well to 
spray with a solution of the sulphate of copper when the buds 
are swelling. 

1 Cornell Agric. Exp. 8ta. Bull. 48, 288-290. 

2 For detailed account of experiments in the treatment of apple scab, see Cornell 
Agric. En&p. Sta. Bull. 48, 265-274 ; also Bulletins 60 and 86. 



Apple. 247 

A second application should be made just before the blossoms 
open, and a third as soon as the blossoms have fallen from the 
trees ; but for these, as well as for all later ones, it is advisable 
to use the Bordeaux mixture or some similar preparation. Such 
applications may be made at intervals of ten or fifteen days, 
depending upon the weather, until from two to six have been 
made. The number necessary will depend largely upon the 
variety treated. In comparatively dry seasons, two applications 
will afford almost complete protection to resistant varieties, 
wdiile those subject to the disease would repay as many as four 
or five. When so treated, the fruit and the foliage will be 
practically perfect as regards injury from scab. 

The amounts of liquid necessary to protect an apple tree from 
the scab will vary with the size of the tree and with the season. 
A well-grown apple tree, twenty-five years old, will require from 
two to three gallons of liquid wdien sprayed before the blossoms 
open. Later in the season, when tlie tree is in full leaf, it will 
be necessary to use four or perhaps five or even six gallons to 
cover the leaves and the fruit thoroughly. 

Insect Enemies. 

Aphis {Apli is Mali J Fabr . ) . — Description. These small insects, 
commonly called lice, are often very numerous upon the young 
shoots and leaves of apple trees. They are generally most 
abundant in spring and early summer, and in the fall. They 
are supposed to cause considerable damage by sucking the juices 
from the blossoms and young leaves, but the injury done by 
them has probably been overestimated. During the latter part 
of June and July the insects disappear. While they are pres- 
ent, immense numbers may be found upon the stems and under 
side of the leaves, the latter being curled so that the pest is 
very well protected from any application which may be made. 

Treatment. Unless the lice are very abundant it is not neces- 
sary to try to destroy them, for they do not cause any serious 
damage, and in a short time they naturally disappear. It is not 
advisable to spray entire orchards, although they may be badly 
infested. But if it is desired to destroy the lice upon certain 
trees, a cheap and efficient remedy will be found in tobacco 
water, or in the decoction. This should be sprayed upon the 
trees as soon after the lice have appeared as possible, and the 



248 The Spraying of Plants. 

applications should be repeated at intervals of two to four days 
if the insects persist. Kerosene emulsion is also an excellent 
remedy, but it is more expensive. The lice are very easily 
killed, and any of the insecticides which kill by contact will 
destroy them. 

Borers («) Flat-headed borer (Chrysohothris femoirita, Fabr.) ; 
(h) Round-headed borers {Saperda Candida, and S. cretata, Fabr.). 
— These insects cannot be controlled by spraying. A^arious 
washes containing carbolic acid, clay, and many other ingre- 
dients have been recommended to drive or keep the insects 
from the trees, but none have proved to be of much value. 
The best and safest line of treatment is to dig out the larvae, 
or to run a wire into the burrow until the insects are reached. 

Bud-Moth {Tmetocera oceUana, Fabr.). — Description. The 
adult, also known as the eye-spotted bud-moth, measures about 
three-fourths of an inch across the fore wings. " The head, 
thorax, and basal third of the fore wings, and also the outer 
edge and fringe are dark ashen gray, the middle of the fore 
wings is cream white, marked more or less with costal streaks 
of gray, and, in some specimens, this part is ashy gray, but 
little lighter than the base. . . . Tlie hind wings above and 
below and the abdomen are ashy gray. The under side of the 
fore wings is darker, and has a series of light, costal streaks on 
the outer part." ^ The insect appears to have but a single brood 
in the North. The eggs are laid during June and July. Accord- 
ing to Slingerland,^ these hatch in from seven to ten days ; the 
larvse feed upon the foliage until about half grown, this requir- 
ing a period of about six wxeks. They then form a small 
silken case, well concealed in the crevices of the twigs, and 
there they remain until the following spring. When the buds 
are swelling, and even after they have burst, the larvae again 
appear. They are then small and dark brown, " about one- 
fourth of an inch in length, with a shining black head and 
thoracic shield." ^ They injure large trees, and also those in 
the nursery; in the latter case they are particularly destructive, 
since the future shape of the tree may be seriously affected by 
the loss of the terminal buds. The opening buds are eaten and 

1 Fernald, Mass. Hatch. Ayric. Ea-p. Sla. 1891, April, Bull. 12, 7. 

2 Cornell Agrie. Exp. Sia. 1893, March, Bull. 50, 14. 

3 Ibid. 10. 



Apple. 



249 



also the young' foliage, so that even large trees frequently suffer 

severely from the insect. The young growing leaves are drawn 

together and firmly held by means of silken threads, and in 

this retreat the larvae are well sheltered (Fig. 4(1). The insect 

pupates within this mass of foliage 

six or seven weeks after its first 

appearance in spring, and about 

ten days later the adult appears. 

Eggs are laid after three or four 

days, and thus the life circle of the 

insect is completed. 

Treatment. The insect may be 
quite easily destroj^ed by thoroughly 
sj)raying the affected trees with 
arsenical poisons as soon as the 
buds have opened, so that the tips 
of the young leaves may be seen. 
Two applications, made before the 
blossoms open, should prove en- 
tirely effective in the destruction 
of this insect. 

Canker-worm (Anisoptei'i/x pome- 
taria, Harris). — Description. This 
insect is commonly called the fall canker-worm, and another 
species, Paleacrita vernata, Peck, is known as the spring canker- 
worm ; 1 they are frequently termed measuring worms, from the 
peculiar manner in which they move about (Fig. 41). 

The caterpillars vary in color from yellow to dark brown, 
and are variously striped. AVhen mature they are about an 
inch long. They then leave the tree upon which they have 
been feeding, either by crawling down the trunk or by lower- 
ing themselves from the branches by means of a fine thread. 
They enter the ground and spin cocoons. Here they remain 
until fall, when the adult moths appear. The male (Fig. 42) 
has a wing expanse of about one and one-fourth inches. It is 
of a glossy gra}^ color, two irregular white bands being genei"- 
ally found upon each of the fore wings. The female is wing- 
less (Fig. 43), from one-fourth to nearl}' half an incli in length, 
and is also gray in color. Slie soon crawls up the trunk of the 

^ Saunders, " Insects Injurious to Fruit,'' 1SS9, 46. 




Fig. 40. — Young apple foliage in- 
jured by larva of bud-moth. 



250 



The Spraying of Plants. 



tree and deposits her eggs among the branches. The adult 
forms of the spring canker-worm rarely appear in the fall, but 
emerge early in the following year. They closely resemble 
A . pometaria. 

Treatment. Various measures have been taken to keep these 
insects in check, the most common being to wrap the trunk of 




Fig. 41. — The canker-worm at work ; natural size. 



the tree with some material over which the adult female can- 
not crawl to lay her eggs. For this purpose tar, or any sticky 
substance, has been in common use.i Cotton has been highly 
recommended. However, the cheapest and best method to get 

1 Eaupenleim and Dendrolene are two substances recommended by Professor 
Smith in Bull. Ill, JsT. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Sept. 



Apple. 



251 




Fig. 42. — Canker- 
worm moth; male, 
natural size. 



rid of the pest is to spray the foliage with Paris green or Lon- 
don purple. 1 This should he done early in the season, as soon 
as the caterpillars make their appearance. K they are seen to 
be injuring the trees before the blossoms are 
open, it may be well to make an application 
at that time. But generally it is not neces- 
sary to spray the trees till after the blossoms 
have fallen. Xever apply the arsenites to 
fruit trees while they are in blossom, for the 
bees which are working among the flowers 
and assisting in the setting of the fruit ma}' 
be poisoned, to the loss of their owner as 
well as to the owner of the orchard. Whether 
bees are actually poisoned by arsenites when 
applied to trees while in full bloom is still a 
disputed point ; ^ they probably are, and the grower will do well 
to apply sprays either before or after the trees have bloomed. 
It may also be that the injury done to the delicate parts of the 
flower by the materials used is alone sufficient cause for avoid- 
ing this time to do the work. The time of blossoming is short, 
and trees should not suffer if sprays are properly applied before 
and after this period. 

If one application of the arsenite is not effective in ridding 
the trees of worms, others should be made at intervals of eight 
or ten days nntil the pest is overcome. When the worms are 
young, they most commonly feed npon the 
under side of the leaves, and it is a good plan 
to treat these parts thoroughly. In making 
the applications it must be remembered that 
the worms will not be destroyed unless the 
poison is placed upon the leaves. All parts 
of the tree should be drenched, and if many 
worms remain a few days after such an appli- 
cation, the materials used are fault}', or they 
have not been mixed in the proper proportions. 

Cigar-case-bearer; Case-worm {Coleoplwra Fletcherella, Fer- 
nald). — Description. The appearance of this insect is so 

1 See Bailey, CorneU Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, Bull. 101. 

2 Cook, 3nch. Afjric. Ei-p. Sta.2i\ Kep. 2G1. Webster, Insect Life, Vol. v. 
No. 2, 121. Lintner, Ihid. Vol. \i. No, 2, 181. 




Fm. 43. — Canker 
worm ; adult fe 
male, natural size 



252 The Sf raying of Plants. 

remarkable that when it has once been observed it is readily 
distinguished in the future. The insect may be found upon 
pears and apples. " The moth is a very delicate and pretty steel- 
gray object. During the day it rests on a leaf with its heavily 
fringed wings folded closely over its abdomen, and its long, 
slender antennse placed close together and projecting straight 
forward from its head. They may be seen on the leaves from 
about June 15 to July 15." i Eggs are soon laid upon the young 
leaves, and in the course of about two weeks the young cater- 
pillars may be seen. During the first two or three weeks these 
mine within the leaf, eating out the green tissue and causing 
the formation of hollow brown areas. The larvre then begin 
the construction from bits of the leaf of the peculiar cases, 
which are shaped like a cigar, but only about three-eighths of 
an inch long; in these they find protection. About the middle 
of September the worms migrate to the branches, where they 
remain throughout the winter. Early in spring, as soon as the 
first leaves appear, the larvse return to the foliage and attack 
all green parts of the host-plant. As the case becomes too 
small for the growing insect, the old one is deserted and a new 
one made. The little worm continually carries the case on end, 
and it obtains its food by eating through the upper surface of 
the leaf and eating out the green portions which are within 
easy reach, causing the affected part to turn brown. During 
June the larvfie pupate, and soon the adult again appears. 

Treatment. The case-bearer is serious in only a few locali- 
ties, and its life history has but recently been carefully studied. 
Although no definite experiments have been made aiming at 
the destruction of the insect, yet the general opinion of all who 
have closely observed it is that the larvae may be killed by 
spraying the affected trees with the arsenite early in the spring, 
making one application before the blossoms open, and two 
after they fall, as is done for the codlin-moth. 

Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn.;. — Description. 
This moth is about half an inch long, and when at rest has 
the wings folded close to its body. Its general color is grayish 
brown. " The fore wings are marked with alternate, irregular, 
transverse, wavy streaks of ash gray and brown, and have on 
the inner hind angle a large, tawny-brown spot, with streaks of 

1 Sling-erland, CorneU Agric. Exp. Sta. 1895, May, Bull. 93, 219. 



Apple. 



253 



light bronze or copper color, nearly in the form of a horseshoe ; 
at a little distance they resemble watered silk." i Tlio hind 
wings are of a glossy light brown color (Fig. 44). 

The moths first appear in spring, having passed the winter 
in cocoons. The first moths fly abont the time that the blos- 
soms fall from the apple trees, and they continne to appear for 
two or three weeks, or even longer. Very soon after leaving 
the cocoons the moths lay their eggs, generally at the blossom 




Fig. 44. — Codlin-moth ; all parts natural size. 



ends of the little apples. The eggs soon hatch and the larvae 
immediately begin to eat the fruit. The second generation of 
moths appears in abont six weeks. Two or three broods are 
produced in a season, and this fact tends to increase the diffi- 
culty of treating the insect successfully. 

Treatment. Formerly the principal remedy for the codlin- 
moth was to destroy all the windfalls, either gathering by 
hand, or having them eaten bj'' stock which was allowed to run 
in the orchard. This practice was fairly successful. Since 

1 Saunders, " Insects Injurious to Fruit," 1SS9, 129. 



254 The Spraying of Plants. 

the moth is a night-flying insect, it has been repeatedly tried 
to attract it by means of lights. Rarely is one caught, and it 
is useless to attempt to trap the moth in this manner. 

Spraying with arsenites is rapidly taking the place of the 
many methods which were formerly employed to destroy this 
pest. The applications are safe, easily made, and are almost 
invariably followed by excellent results. The first application 
should be made as soon as the blossoms fall from the trees, earlier 
ones being unnecessary. But as soon as the blossoms have 
fallen, spray thoroughly, using either Paris green or London 
purple. The operation must not be delayed until the apples 
are as large as cherries, but should be immediately performed. 
It is well to spray a second time about ten days later, but if the 
weather is rainy, applications are advisable after heavy showers, 
since the poison is more or less washed away by a beating rain. 
Poison must be at the blossom end of the apple when the larva 
appears, for when the w^orm is once inside the fruit it can no 
longer be reached ; the first thing that it eats should be poison. 

Since the second brood comes from the first, if the first is 
killed there can be no second, therefore the necessity of doing 
the work well from the beginning. The appearance of the later 
broods is probably too irregular to allow of successful treatment, 
and it is not always advisable to make special applications for 
their destruction. 

By applying a combination of an insecticide and a fungicide, 
we can treat both the codlin-moth and the apple scab, thus 
saving the labor of one treatment. The most reliable combi- 
nation thus far made is that of the Bordeaux mixture and 
Paris green or London purple. This combination is as effective 
as when separate treatments are made ^ against the fungus and 
the insect. The use of the ammoniacal carbonate of copper 
applied in connection with the arsenites has also given good 
results, and as the mixture is more easily applied than Bor- 
deaux, it may in some rare cases be given the preference 
(see page 140). 

In Paris green we have a combined insecticide and fungicide, 
already prepared, but the fungicidal value is not so strong as 
might be wished. Its use during the past two years has, 
however, shown that it affords apples considerable protection 

1 Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48, 274 ; 60, 274. 



Apple, 255 

against fungi. The foliage of susceptible varieties may be 
rendered fairly perfect by the arseuite, and in consequence, the 
vigor of the tree itself will be considerably increased. Its addi- 
tional value as an insecticide makes it one of the best remedies 
for desti'oying orchard pests. 

Stock is frequently pastured in bearing orchards which are in 
permanent sod, and doubts are often expressed as to the advisa- 
bility of removing the animals after the trees have been sprayed 
with arsenical poisons or other materials. Cook^ has conducted 
some experiments to test this point, and in no case could 
he find that horses or sheep were in the least injured. He 
applied much larger amounts of the poisons than are generally 
used ; and I have still to hear of the first case in which pastur- 
ing stock under sprayed trees, whatever the application may 
have been, has been followed by bad results. When one con- 
siders how small is the amount of poison used per tree, the 
small percentage of it that falls to the ground, and how little 
of this adheres to those parts of the herbage that are eaten, it 
will be seen that there is practically no danger to the stock. 

Curculio {Antlionomus quadrigibbus, Say). — Description. As 
the name of this insect indicates, it possesses four projections, 
these being found on the back at the posterior end of the body. 
They are nearly conical in form and of a brownish-red color. 
The general appearance of the insect is brown, but a shade of 
red may also be noticed. Although it is closely related to the 
plum curculio, its body is slightly smaller and the snout longer ; 
the entire length is about one-quarter of an inch. Its habits 
are also in some respects different. In laying its eggs no 
crescent-shaped mark is made, but a hole, somewhat enlarged 
at the bottom, is bored into the small apple, and the egg is 
there deposited."^ The apple grows more slowly in the 
affected portions, which results in its becoming misshapen, and 
if the fruit is stung several times it will be Avorthless on account 
of its small size and irregular form. Fig. 45 represents apples 
which were injured by this insect and also by the plum curculio, 
another serious enemy of the apple. 

Treatment. The apple curculio rarel}" does much damage in 
the Xorth, but in some of the middle states it is occasionally 
very destructive. The most promising remedy is to spray the 

1 See page 233. 2 Q-illette, Iowa Exp. Sla. Bull. 11, 493. 



256 



The Sprayinij of Plants, 



trees very thoroughly with the arsenites early in spring. Tt 
may be advisable to make the first application before the 
blossoms open, and another after their fall. The value of such 
applications is still a disputed point, and it is more fully dis- 
cussed nnder "Spraying for the curculio," page 68. My own 
experience leads me to believe that apples in thoroughly 
sprayed orchards suffer comparatively little from this iusect. 
Jarring the trees has also been recommended, but this is not 
always practicable. Sheep and hogs may be of service in an 




Fig. 45. — Apples distorted by curculio injuries. 



affected orchard, but unfortunately apples which are stung by 
the curculio do not fall to the ground to such an extent as do 
those attacked by the codlin-moth, and only a small number 
would be destroyed by this means. 

Fall Web-worm {Hypliantria cimea, Harris). — Description. 
The mature insect is a moth, pure white in color, with an ex- 
panse of wings of about one and one-fourth inches. The insect 
is widely distributed throughout the country, and when undis- 
turbed, tlie larvae niay do considerable injury, not only to fruit 
trees, but to many other plants, since they are not very par- 



Apple. 257 

tioular as to diet. The eggs are laid upon the foliage during 
early summer, and soon liatch. The full-grown larvae are about 
an inch long, with varied markings. They are thickly covered 
with yellowish hair, of varying shades, it being longer at the 
extremities of the body. The head is black, and a dark stripe 
extends along the back. These caterpillars are most con- 
spicuous in the fall after they have woven a web, inside which 
they work. The foliage to be eaten is first enclosed in this 
jnanner, and afterwards devoured. When full grown the 
caterpillars descend to the ground, and there spin cocoons in 
which they remain until the following year. There is but one 
brood of the insect in the Xoi'th. 

Treatment. Spray with the arsenites during summer, as soon 
as the presence of the insect is noticed. The foliage should be 
covered with the poison before it is surrounded by the web, 
and this can be done most effectively while the larvae are 
small. Tf spraying is neglected, cut out the limb and burn 
it, or hold a burning torch to the nest until the caterpillars are 
destroyed. 

Leaf-Skeletonizer (Pempelia Hammondi, Riley). — Description. 
The larva of this moth causes the curled and scorched appear- 
ance which is sometimes exhibited by apple leaves, especially 
when young. The worm, which is greenish-brown, causes the 
injury by eating the green j)ortions of the leaves. Its length is 
about half an inch. A web is generally spun, and frequently 
several leaves are drawn together by it, making an unsightly 
object. 

Treatment. The web spun by the larva? affords them some 
protection against applications which are made ; but if the 
arsenites are applied as soon as the worms are seen, their work 
should soon receive a check, for new material will soon be 
required for food, and this should bear the poison. Hand 
picking has also been recommended ; it is a laborious but 
certain method of destroying them. 

Maggot; Railroad-worm {Trypeta pomonella, Walsh). — De- 
scription. The many small burrows frequently seen extending 
in all directions throughout the flesh of an apple are caused by 
a greenish-white footless maggot al)out one-fourth of an inch in 
length. The mature form of the insect is a two-winged fly. It 
lays its eggs singly under the skin of the apple, early in sum- 
s 



258 The Spraying of Plants. 

mer ; these hatch in a few days, and the maggot, after tunneUng 
for about six weeks, leaves the fruit, and enters the ground, 
where it pupates. The mature flies appear the following 
summer. 

Treatment. No effectual remedies are yet known. It is 
scarcely possible that arsenical sprays will lessen the trouble ; 
but the destruction of the young affected fruit, if well done, 
would materially reduce the danger of injury. 

Oyster-shell Bark-louse (Mytilasjns pomorum, Bouche). — De- 
scription. The small brownish scales which are commonly seen 
upon apple trees have been secreted by a little insect which may 
be found underneath them during the summer. The scale, or 
shell, protects the insect, and the latter can scarcely be reached 
by any application made at this time of the year. But in early 
spring the scales contain a number of light-colored eggs. 
These hatch in May, and during warm weather the young- 
insects crawl about, and in a few days attach themselves to the 
bark. They then begin to secrete a shell which soon resembles 
that of the parent. 

Treatment. Since the bark-louse is a sucking insect it cannot 
be destroyed by arsenites or similar poisons. Spray affected 
plants with some insecticide which kills by contact, such as 
kerosene emulsion, or tobacco water. These applications should 
be made before the young insect has attached itself to the bark. 
Before the eggs hatch it is well to scrape badly affected parts, 
and then to wash them thoroughly with some good insecticide, 
those of a soapy nature being preferable. 

Tent Caterpillar {Clisiocampa Americana, Harris). — Descrip- 
tion. The moths are three-fourths of an inch long, the spread of 
the wings being about one and three-fourths inches. The general 
color is brown, but there is a darker band near the outer mar- 
gin of the fore wings. In July the moths lay their eggs closely 
in rows around the smaller twigs of trees, sometimes as many 
as three hundred being deposited. These eggs do not hatch 
until the following spring ; then the caterpillars appear, and 
begin to feed upon the young leaves. After a few days they 
commence to spin their web, which soon grows to be large and un- 
sightly. When full grown the caterpillars are about two inches 
long ; they are somewhat hairy, and have a white streak run- 
ning along the center of the back. The sides of the body are 



Apple. 259 

ornamented witli yellowish iiuii'kings, while nuderneath it is 
quite black. The worms mature in about six weeks from the 
time they are hatched. At this time they generally leave the 
tree and seek some sheltered corner in which they spin their 
cocoons. In three weeks moths issue, and eggs are again laid. 

Treatment. This insect does considerable damage if it is left 
unchecked, but it is so easily destroyed that there is no need 
of having any trouble with it in an orchard. As soon as a 
nest is seen, the branch may be cut off and burned, or the 
insects crushed without the removal of the nest. But a much 
better remedy is to spray the foliage near the web with arsen- 
ites. The caterpillars always return to the web at night, and 
they may also be found there in bad weather ; and if the tree 
has been sprayed they generally return there to die. In spray- 
ing for the codlin-inoth sufficient poison is applied to rid the 
orchard of this enemy also. 

Woolly Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera, Hausm.). — Description. 
This insect is a small yellow plant louse. It is found upon many 
kinds of trees, both on the branches and among the roots, and 
causes injury by sucking the juices. The insect is protected by 
a woolly or mealy covering, and from this it has received its 
common name. When the roots of nursery trees are attacked 
the stock is almost worthless, for the labor and expense of de- 
stroying the insects is generally greater than the value of the 
stock. 

Treatment. Affected branches may be cleaned by throwing 
a strong stream of water upon them, thus dislodging the 
insects. Kerosene emulsion and tobacco water will also kill 
them, if the applications are made so thoroughly that the 
insecticide will penetrate the covering. It will probably be 
found necessary to repeat them. Roots of trees standing in 
the ground may be treated with scalding water. If the roots 
are to be dipped into tlie water, a temperature higher than 
150 degrees F. should not be allowed, and l^O-loo'^ F. sliould 
kill the insects after a moment's immersion. Kerosene emulsion 
and tobacco water give good results. They may either be 
sprayed upon the roots, or these may be dipped into the liquid. 
In either case the roots must be well cleaned before the appli- 
cation is made, so that the insecticide will reach the insect. It 
is possible that the hydrocyanic gas treatment would be of 



260 The Spraying of Plants. 

value ill treating young, dormant trees before setting. During 
summer these insects multiply very rapidly, and all treatments 
should be made early in the season, and very thoroughly. If 
this is not done, bisulphide of carbon may prove effective, 
although the remedy does not yet appear to have been used for 
this purpose. 

APRICOT. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Rust. See under Plum. 

Insect Enemies. 
Curculio. See under Plum. 

ASPARAGUS. 

Asparagus Beetle (^Crioceris Asparagi, Linn.). — Description. 
In many localities asparagus is seriously injured by a small, 
dark, metallic-blue beetle, which is also marked with yellow 
and red. It passes the winter as a beetle, and lays its eggs on 
the young asparagus shoots in spring. There are two or three 
broods. 

Treatment. The removal of affected parts and the destruc- 
tion of the eggs will assist in suppressing the pest. Hellebore, 
mixed with flour, 1 part to 10, has been recommended as being 
effective against the first brood of larvae, and it is probable 
that the arsenite would prove valuable if applied after market- 
ing has ceased. 

ASTER. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Rust {Coleosporium Sonchi-arvemis, Lev.). — Description. 
The fungus appears to attack the leaves mostly from the under 
side; here it produces orange-colored pustules and eventually 
causes the death of the diseased leaves. 

Treatment. Spray the plants early in the season with a clear 
fungicide, repeating the applications at intervals of two to four 
weeks. Care should be exercised to reach the under surface of 
the leaves. 



Balm of Grilead, Bean. 261 



BALM OF GILEAD. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Rust. See under Cottonwood. 



BAKLEY. 



Fungous Diseases. 



" Barley is subject to two loose smuts, both somewhat like oat 
smut. They may be prevented by soaking the seed four hours 
in cold water, letting it stand four hours in a moist state in sacks, 
and finally treating in hot water as directed for oats and wheat 
(which see), but only for five minutes, and at a temperature of 
126° to 128° F." 1 

BEAN. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Anthracnose ; Pod Rust {C'olletotrichun Lindemuthianum, Briosi 
and Cavara). — Description. This fungus attacks the stems, 
foliage, and fruit of bean plants, and is, perhaps, the most 
serious trouble against which bean growers have to contend. 
The seed may be affected even before it is sown; it is then 
wrinkled and pitted to a greater or less extent, the affected 
parts being sometimes only very slightly discolored, again, very 
markedly yellow or brown. The disease can be carried from 
season to season by affected seed, and in severe cases the young 
plants are so much injured by the fungus that they are not able 
to appear above ground. Young seedlings are also destroyed, 
as the stem is frequently cut off by the parasite, causing deep 
and blackened indentations. The large and the small veins are 
similarly attacked, while the green tissue of the leaf does not 
escape. Tlie latter shows the trouble by the aj)pearance of 
dark discolorations which conform in shape, to a certain extent, 
to the surrounding veins. The part first attacked soon becomes 
brittle and then breaks, leaving an irregular opening through 
the leaf. A black discoloration marks the progress of the dis- 
ease. Upon tlie stems and veins, affected parts are consider- 
ably sunken and blackened, the edges being tinged with red. 

1 [J. S. Dept. o/Agric. Div. of Vey. Path. Farmers' Bull. No. 5. 



262 



The Spraying of Plants. 



This is particularly noticeable upon the sides of diseased pods 
(Fig. 46). Later, the central portion of the pits show minute, 



A 



5 ar 




Fia. 46. — Bean authracuose. 



light-colored dots, which are masses of spores or reproductive 
bodies. Spore formation appears to be particularly energetic 
upon the pods. 



Bean. 263 

Treatment. The use of healtliy seed is of the greatest impor- 
tance. Diseased seed may be soaked in some good fungicide, but 
the vahie of the operation is open to doubt. Professor Beach 
has made a careful study of this disease, and his conclusion is 
as follows : ^ " Even when the treatment of the seed by the best 
fungicides is so severe that the stand is seriously injured, there 
remains enough of the disease to injure the crop under field 
conditions. At the time of harvesting the crop in the above 
noted experiments, not a sound plant or even a sound pod was 
found in the whole lot. These results certainly give little en- 
couragement for hope that treatment of seed with fungicides 
will yield sufficiently good results to justify recommending its 
adoption." 

The recommendations made by Professor Beach in regard to 
treating the disease are : " (1) Selection of sound seed; (2) im- 
mediate removal of infected seedlings from the field ; (3) keep- 
ing the foliage covered with Bordeaux mixture." A weaker 
mixture, one containing about 1.5 per cent of copper sulphate, 
has given excellent results, and it is harmless to foliage. The 
disease is more severe in low, damp places, so these should be 
avoided as much as possible. 

Rust (^Uromyces Phaseoli, Winter). — Description. Diseased 
leaves first show small, brown dots which are nearly circular, 
and slightly elevated. They soon discharge a brown powder, 
this being the first crop of spores. Later, a second crop of 
spores is produced; these are black in color, and somewhat 
larger than the earlier form. The buds are similarly affected. 

Treatment. The free use of Bordeaux mixture may afford 
full protection to exposed plants, but as yet no general use of 
the remedy has been made. 



Insect Enemies. 

Bean Weevil (Bnichus ohtectus, Say). — This insect closely 
resembles the pea weevil in appearance, and their life histories 
are practically identical. See under Pea. 

1 Some Bean Diseases. A thesis in the Eot. Dept. of the Agric. Coll. Ames, 
Iowa, 1892, 323. 



264 The Spraying of Plmits. 

BEAN, LIMA. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Blight {Phytophtlwra PhaseoU, Thaxter). — Description. This 
fungus attacks the young leaves and stems, and also the pods. 
It generally appears during August and September, and covers 
the affected parts with a dense, white covering. 

Treatment. Spray the plants with some clear copper com- 
pound before the season when the disease generally first appears. 
Two or three applications should protect the vines. 

BEET. 

Leaf Spot (^Cercospora heticola, Sacc). — Description. "The 
common name well describes the general appearance of the beet 
leaves infested with this Cercospora, for they are at first more or 
less covered with small light or ashy spots, which later often 
become holes by the disappearance of the tissue previously 
killed by the fungus. . . . Full-sized leaves often become 
mutilated, and sometimes scarcely more than the framework 
remains." -^ The spots are at first surrounded by a band of red 
or purple (Fig. 47). The disease is more or less prevalent 
throughout the summer months. 

Treatment. The trouble may be controlled by the use of 
fungicides, but as beet foliage is easily injured, the safest one 
to use is the Bordeaux mixture. . This may be used of the 
normal strength, or even more dilute. The first applications 
should be made about the middle of June or early in July, de- 
pending upon the latitude and the season. The foliage should 
thereafter be kept covered by the material. 

Root Rot (Phyllosticta, sp.). — Description. The fungus caus- 
ing root rot of beets is particularly serious after the roots are 
stored. The affected parts shrink slightly, turn black, yet 
remain quite firm. The leaves appear to be affected by the 
same fungus, its presence causing the formation of circular 
spots, sometimes half an inch in diameter. The diseased tissue 
dies and soon cracks. 

Treatment. The foliage should be well protected by the Bor- 

1 Halsted, X. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S95, Bull. lOT, S. 



Beet. 



265 



deaux mixture during the growing season, and when the beets 
are stored all the leaves should be removed. 

Rust ( Uromyces Betce, Pers.). — Description. This disease is at 
present most destructive in Europe and in California. It is 
easily recognized by the rusty-red powder that is abundantly 
produced upon the affected portions of the leaves. A similar 
disease attacks carnations and hollyhocks. 




Fig. 47. — Beet leaf spot. 



Treatment. Although it appears that no definite experiments 
have been made in this country for the control of beet rust, it 
is probable that the fungus may be held in check by continued 
applications of the Bordeaux mixture. The related forms found 
upon other plants yield to treatment, and applications made 
at the first appearance of the trouble should prevent it from 
liecoming serious. 

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thax.). — This disease also attacks 
potatoes, causing them to be scabby. The only known remedy 
for the trouble in beets is to avoid ground in which the fungus 
is known to exist. 



266 



The Spraying of Plants. 



BLACKBERRY. 

The insect and fungous troubles of the blackberry are treated 
under Raspberry, which see. 



CABBAGE. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Club-root; Club-foot; Finger-and-Toe (Plasmidiopliora Brassi- 
cfc, Woronin). — Description. As its name indicates, this disease 

causes distinct and marked swellings 
or " clubs " at certain portions of the 
root system of the cabbage and re- 
lated plants; when the attack is 
severe, the roots are apparently all 
united into one large swelling wholly 
distinct from the normal growth of 
the plant (Fig. 48). The fungus caus- 
ing the disease may remain active in 
the soil for several years, and the 
young plants are frequently very 
seriously attacked even before they 
are set in their permanent quarters. 
Affected plants appear weak and 
sickly, they grow slowly or not at all, 
and are disinclined to form heads. 

Treatment. Although club-root is 
one of the most serious of the dis- 
eases attacking cabbages, its treat- 
ment is not well understood. The 
successful use of fungicides appears 
to be hopeless, and until some means 
of destroying the fungus in the soil 
has been discovered, the best plan of overcoming the parasite is 
to starve it out by growing other crops upon the land. It has 
been recommended that cabbages and allied plants should not 
be grown upon infested land oftener than once in three years. 
All material which is capable of encouraging the growth of the 
fungus should be destroyed, and the spread of the disease should 




Fig. 48. — Cabbage club-root. 



Cahhage. 267 

be checked whenever opportunity offers. Halsted has success- 
fully treated club-foot by applications of air-slaked stone lime, 
used at the I'ate of 75 bushels per acre. This remedy should 
be given a thorough trial.i 

Insect Enemies. 

Cabbage Aphis (Aphis Brassicce). — Description. This insect 
is one of the many forms of plant lice with which gardeners 
have to contend. It is a small, greenish-blue insect which, if 
unchecked, increases at an astonishing rate. It is almost con- 
tinually protected by a gray flour-like covering which renders 
treatment difficult. As with all other insects which propagate 
rapidly, it is essential that those found early in the season be as 
completely exterminated as possible. 

Treatment. Poisons which penetrate the outer coverings of 
the insect are to be recommended. It is difficult to make mate- 
rials adhere to either the foliage or to the insects, and for this 
reason they must be all the more carefully applied; kerosene 
emulsion, tobacco water, hot water, pyrethrum, etc., are all 
effective if properly used. 

Cabbage Plusia (Plusia Brassicce, R.). — Description. The 
adult insect is a dark-gray moth about an inch in length hav- 
ing a small silvery spot and V-shaped mark in the center of 
each fore wing. The moths appear in spring and lay their eggs 
generally on the upper side of the cabbage leaf. They hatch 
into green larvae which feed upon the foliage of the plant, fre- 
quently burrowing through and through the cabbage head, 
practically ruining it for market. The worms also feed upon 
lettuce, endive, celery, and other garden plants, their treatment 
being the same as here described. These worms are span-worms ; 
they progress by looping the body and then straightening it. 
When full grown they are about one and one-half inches in length. 
The larvae then spin cocoons, pupate, and in a short time the 
adult moth appears. There is more than one brood each season. 

Treatment. The remedies mentioned under Cabbage-worm 
may be used successfully against this pest also. But if pos- 
sible, greater care should be exercised in destroying the plusia, 
since on account of its tunneling habits it inflicts more damage 

1 .V. ,/. Agric. Exp. Sta. 7th Aim. Kept. 1894, 288. 



268 The Spraying of Plants. 

on the crop. The first brood should be exterminated by repeated 
and thorough applications. 

Cabbage Root-maggot (Phorbia Brassicce, Bouche). — Descrip- 
tion. The adult insect is a two-winged fly which bears much 
resemblance to that so commonly found in and about dwelling- 
houses. It is considerably smaller, however, and the wings 
fold more closelj^ together. 

The adult flies appear during April and early May. Eggs 
are laid about the base of the newly set plants, in some cases 
several hundred being found about a single plant. These ap- 
pear to hatch in about a week, depending upon the condition of 
the weather. The young maggots generally first attack the 
young roots, burrowing along their surfaces, until finally the 
root is destroyed. The main roots are then attacked, and later 
the stem of the plant may be entered. In this manner a crop 
is soon rendered worthless. There appear to be two, and pos- 
sibly three broods each year. 

Treatment. The cabbage root-maggot has for years been 
causing serious losses to cabbage growers, and although about 
seventy methods of destroying the pest have been recommended, 
only few have much merit, showing that tlie enemy is a difficult 
one to deal with. Pieces of tar paper fitted closely about the 
young plants at the time of setting, or immediately after, are 
very effective in preventing the flies from laying their eggs. 
As the insect works upon many weeds, and also upon other cul- 
tivated plants, this method does not destroy the pest, but drives 
it to other quarters, from which future supplies may at all times 
come. Another and better plan is to inject about a teaspoon- 
ful of the bisulphide of carbon just underneath the plant, avoid- 
ing contact with the roots as much as possible. In severe cases 
a tablespoonf ul may be used to advantage. One application, if 
made when the maggots are first seen in May, should be suffi- 
cient. After applying the liquid, press the soil about the plant, 
to prevent, as far as possible, the escape of the fumes.^ 

Cabbage-w^orm. 

Imported Cabbage-butterfly (Pier is Rapcc, Linn.). — Description. 
Our common cabbage-worm, although a species introduced from 

1 For an exhaustive account of this insect, see Sling-erlaud, Cornell Agric. Exj). 
Ski. 1894, Bull. 78. 



Cahhage. 269 

iMirope, has become so widespread and serious that many cab- 
bage crops are aniuially ruined by it. (iardeners are only too 
familiar with the mature and the larval forms to require com- 
plete descriptions for the identification of the insect. The 
adult is a white butterfly having the outer fore corner of the 
front wings marked with black. In addition to this the male 
lias one black spot near the center of the front wings, while the 
female has two. The insects pass the winter in the chrysalis 
state, and in spring the mature forms appear. The female lays 
her eggs, which are small and of a yellow color, upon the leaves 
of cabbages and related plants; in a few days the eggs hatch, 
producing small green worms that feed upon the foliage of 
the plants upon which they were laid. These worms become 
full grown in about two weeks, when they seek some sheltered 
place in which they turn to pup?e. In from one to two weeks 
a new crop of butterflies may be seen, and these in turn con- 
tinue to propagate the species. Several broods appear each year. 

Treatment. This pest is most easily destroyed when it is in 
the larval stage. It may then be treated in two general ways. 
As the larvae eat the foliage they may be poisoned very easily 
by applying hellebore or some form of arsenic. The latter, 
however, must be used only upon young plants, otherwise there 
is danger of poisoning the human consumer. Hellebore may 
be used quite freely at all times, since it loses its strength on 
exposure to air. The other method of destroying the insects is 
to apply poisons which penetrate the soft covering of their 
bodies. For this purpose kerosene emulsion may by success- 
fully employed, but as in the case of the arsenites, only young 
plants should be treated in this manner. For heading cabbages, 
it is safer to use some form of pyrethrum. Some prefer the use 
of hot water to all other remedies ; it is clean, does not injure 
the plants if properly applied, and it destroys the worms. It 
is unpleasant to handle, however, and its use has not generally 
been favored. Particular care should be taken to kill the first 
brood, whatever the remedy selected, for if this brood is exter- 
minated, later ones will have small chances of appearing. All 
applications should be repeated as often as seems to be 
necessary. 

Harlequin Cabbage-bug (Miirganda hisfrionica, Ilahn). — De- 
scripiion. This southern insect is gradually extending noi-th- 



270 The Spraying of Plants. 

ward along the Atlantic coast, and is showing itself to be per- 
haps the worst enemy of the cabbage grower. The adult bug 
is nearly half an inch in length. It is brightly marked with 
black and orange colors, and for this reason has received its 
popular name. The mature insect hibernates during the 
winter ; in early spring, as soon as the cruciferous plants upon 
which it feeds make their appearance, the eggs are laid, com- 
monly on the under side of the leaves, and closely cemented in 
a double row containing about a dozen eggs. These hatch 
within a week, and the young pests then begin to suck the sap 
from the leaves. So active are their operations in this direction 
that it is said a young cabbage plant will succumb in one day 
if attacked by half a dozen of the insects. The bugs are veiy 
shy, and if disturbed they try to hide. They mature in about 
twelve days from the time the egg is hatched, and this allows 
of the appearance of several broods each year. 

Treatment. For several reasons this insect is very difficult to 
control. It cannot be destroyed by poisons which are taken in- 
ternally, and on account of its active habits it is difficult to 
reach with external applications; again, the rapidity with which 
it can multiply renders very tliorough work necessary from the 
start, else their number will soon increase to an extent sufficient 
to ruin the cabbage plants. Hand picking has been recom- 
mended, but it is of doubtful value when large areas are af- 
fected. One habit of the pest may prove of considerable service 
in its destruction. During the nights of spring and autumn, the 
adult insects collect under chips, boards, etc., and under small 
piles of leaves or some similar materials which afford them g6od 
hiding-places. If these are removed or burned in the morning 
after the insects have collected under them, large numbers may 
be disposed of. This practice is particularly valuable if the 
brood which hibernates during the winter can be so destroyed, 
since this largely reduces the abundance of the future genera- 
tions. Another method of destroying this brood and of saving 
the cabbage plants has been suggested by Weed. The harlequin 
cabbage-bug is very fond of mustard, and if the latter is sown 
between the rows of cabbages almost all the insects will collect 
upon the mustard. This should then be sprayed with pure 
kerosene, and thus the hibernating bugs can practically all be 
destroyed. 



Carnation. 



271 



CARNATION. 



Fungous Diseases. ^ 

Anthracnose ( Volutella sp.). — 
Description. Although anthrac- 
nose is apparently an introduced 
disease, it has become so wide- 
spread that it is now one of 
the most serious of the many 
fungi attacking carnations. The 
fungus causes grayish -brown, 
sunken areas to appear at the 
bases of the leaves, these being 
marked with small black eleva- 
tions covered with bristly points. 
The parasite also grows in the 
stems of flowering plants, caus- 
ing the parts beyond the affected 
portion to suffer from want of 
nourishment, a symptom read- 
ily distinguished by an expe- 
rienced florist. Cuttings very 
frequently contain the disease, 
and for this reason they cannot 
do w^ell. 

Treatment. Avoid spreading 
the disease W'hen propagating 
the carnations ; only healthy 
stock should be used. If there 
is danger from infection, the 
most promising method of pre- 
venting the spread of the disease 
is to keep the plants growing 
well, and to spray them with 
some good fungicide, as the Bor- 
deaux mixture. To avoid stain- 
ing the plants, the ammoniacal 

1 See, also, Atkinson, Carnation J)i,<)- 
eases. A paper read before the American 
Carnation Society, 1S93, Am. Fl. viii. 720. 





Fig. 49. — Carnation rust. 



272 



The Spraying of Plants. 



solution of copper carbonate may be substituted, although it is 
perhaps not so efficient. The plants should at all times be pro- 
tected in this manner. 

Rust {Uromyces caryophyllinus, Schr.). — Descrijytion. This 
European disease was first noted in this country about the year 

1891. It has been rapidly dissemina- 
ted here by means of the stock sent 
out by propagators, and now it can 
be found in the house of nearly every 
extensive carnation grower. The 
first external appearance of the dis- 
ease (Fig. 49) is the formation of 
gray, blister-like elevations on the 
leaves and stems, these being of 
various sizes and shapes. As the 
fungus develops, these parts rupture 
and a large amount of a reddish- 
brown powder is forced through the 
broken epidermis. This powder con- 
sists of spores which are capable of 
rej)roducing the parasite in other 
localities. Later another kind of 
spore is matured from the affected 
part, this being of service to carry 
the fungus through conditions which 
prove fatal to the body of the para- 
site and also to the spores first pro- 
duced. 

Treatment. A plant that has be- 
come infested with the rust fungus 
cannot be cured ; the only remedy is 
to cut out the affected parts and de- 
stroy them. The spread of the dis- 
ease may, however, be checked by 
the proper use of fungicides. The disease appeared in the 
Cornell forcing houses during the winter of 1891-95, and was 
practically controlled by thorough applications of the Bordeaux 
mixture. Copper chloride appeared to be equally effective. 
Soap was used with the mixture in order to make the liquid 
adhere better. This, however, did not prove entirely satisfac- 



FiG. 50. 



Spot" of carnation. 



Carnation^ OauUJlotver. 273 

tory, and the greatest reliance was placed uiDon the production 
of an extremely fine spray, the particles being so small that 
they adhered without much difficulty. If thorough applications 
are made at intervals of one to three weeks, little trouble should 
be experienced from carnation rust. It is said that the 
disease may also be controlled by the use of the sulphide of 
potassium. 

Spot; Blight (Septoria Dianthi, Desm.). — Description. The 
spot of carnations may be recognized by the presence of grayish- 
brown spots, more or less circular in outline, and surrounded by 
a conspicuous purple band which is well defined on the inner 
edge, but mingles wdth the healthy green tissue at the outer 
margin (Fig. 50). Both stems and leaves are attacked, and 
much damage is inflicted. The foliage cannot perform its 
functions properly, and the stems may be so severely attacked 
that all portions beyond the diseased areas die. 

Treatment. It is probable that proper application of fungi- 
cides, as described under Rust, will prevent the malady from 
becoming serious. 

CATALPA. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta Ca^aZjooB, Ell. & Martin). — Description. 
During early summer the leaves of catalpa trees often become 
disfigured by circular brown spots which under favorable cir- 
cumstances increase to such an extent that the trees may almost 
entirely lose their foliage before the middle of August. When 
the attack is less severe the affected portions frequently drop 
from the leaves, causing the latter to be more or less perforated. 

Treatment. Spraying the trees early in the season with the 
Bordeaux mixture or some other good fungicide would prob- 
ably largely prevent the trouble. Two or three applications 
made at intervals of two or three weeks should suffice. 



CAULIFLOWER. 

The enemies and diseases of cauliflowers have been consid- 
ered under Cabbage, which see. Care should be taken in 
treating this crop, that the center or " flower " of the plant 
remains uninjured by the applications. 

T 



274 The Spraying of Plants. 

CELERY. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Celery Blight; Rust; Sun-scald {Cercospora Apii, Fries). — 
Description. Tlie first indication of celery blight is the appear- 
ance of small, yellowish spots upon the leaves. They rapidly 
enlarge, run together, and finally cause the destruction of the 
leaf, which first turns yellow and then brown. The disease is 
more serious in dry locations, especially if the sun is allowed to 
shine freely upon the foliage. 

Treatment. The crop should be grown only in moist localities, 
and there it naturally grows to its greatest perfection. If grown 
on high land, shade is desirable ; if it can be obtained from a 
building so much the better, as trees and other growing plants 
rapidly drj^ out the ground in their immediate vicinity. In 
case the plants cannot be kept free fi'om the disease by these 
means, the application of any standard fungicide will almost 
entirely prevent its appearance. 

Leaf Blight (Septoria Petroselini var. Apii). — Description. All 
parts of the celery plant except the roots suffer from this fungous 
disease. Watery areas appear on the stems and leaves, and 
these soon show many small black dots which contain the 
spores or reproductive bodies of the fungus. The disease is 
very common in seed-beds, and may be carried over on the seed. 

Treatment. The first precaution to take is to plant only clean 
seed. That which is speckled or spotted with the above-men- 
tioned black dots should be avoided as much as possible. If, in 
addition, the young plants are sprayed with a good fungicide 
the disease should not become serious. Such applications 
should be repeated whenever the condition of the plants seems 
to demand it. 

Insect Enemies. 

Celery-caterpillar. See under Parsley. 



CHERRY. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Brown Rot {Monilia fructigena, Pers.). — This disease and its 
treatment are fully discussed under Peach. The cherry does 



Cherry^ Chrysanthemum. 275 

not require such repeated applications, since tlie fruit matures 
earlier in the season. It is also more unsafe to use the Bor- 
deaux mixture, on account of the danger of staining the fruit ; 
the amnioniacal solution of copper carbonate or some other 
clear fungicide will be found a better remedy after the cherries 
are one-half grown. The Bordeaux mixture may be safely ap- 
plied as soon as the blossoms have fallen and the fruit has set. 

Leaf Blight {CyUmlrospor'ium PculL Karst.). This disease is 
fully treated under Plum, which see. 

Powdery Mildew (Podosphcera Oxycanthce, DeBary). See 
under Atple. 

Black Knot {Plowrightia \_Sphmria\ morhosa, Sacc). Sec 
under Plum. 

Insect Enemies. 

Canker-worm (Pnleacrita vernata, Peck). See under Apple. 

Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst). See under 
Plum. 

Slug (Selandrki Cerasi, Peck). — Description. The mature 
insect is a black fly having four wings. The eggs are laid in 
small openings made in the leaf by the insect. They hatch in 
about two weeks. The larvse mature in about four weeks. 
They bear a certain resemblance to a tadpole, being shiny, 
dark-green worms, about half an inch long (Fig. 75). They eat 
the soft tissues of the leaves, only the larger veins remaining. 
In severe cases the trees may be entirely defoliated. There are 
two broods each year. 

Treatment. Fortunately this insect may be overcome very 
easily. Dry-slaked lime dusted over the leaves destroys the 
pest, and if air-slaked lime be freely used it will answer the 
same purpose. Pyrethrum, hellebore, or some form of arsenic, 
applied dry or with water, will also rid the tree of the insect. 
Dry road-dust has been recommended, but is not always satis- 
factory. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Spot (Septoria Chrysanthemi, E. & D.). — Description. 
The fungus causing leaf spot of chrysanthemums first causes 



276 The Spraying of Plants. 

the formation of small dark-brown spots upon the foliage. 
The affected areas increase in size until the leaves are so badly 
affected that they fall to the ground. It is only within the last 
few years that the disease has become serious. A leaf blight, 
caused by Cylindrosporium Clirysantliemi, E. & D., closely resem- 
bles the leaf spot and is with difficulty distinguished from it 
without the aid of a microscope. 

New Leaf Spot {Phijllosticta Chrysanthemi, E. & D.). — De- 
scription. This is another recent disease affecting chrysanthe- 
mums. It forms upon the leaves ratlier large purplish-brown 
areas. These appear soft and velvety upon the surface. AVhen 
a leaf is severely attacked the portions apparently unaffected 
turn yellow, and the value of the leaf to the plant is de- 
stroyed. 

Treatment. Although these diseases have not been exten- 
sively treated, it seems very probable that they should be kept 
in check without much difficulty. Bordeaux mixture has in a 
few cases been used with apparent success ; and if the applica- 
tions are thoroughly made, and repeated at intervals of two or 
three weeks, there is every reason to believe that the plants 
may be kept comparatively free from disease. But these fungi 
have also proved to be troublesome in the cutting bench, and 
here their treatment is more difficult. Only healthy stock 
should be used for propagation, and if the plants have been 
well grown this should not be difficult to find. If the diseases 
do appear among the cuttings, the use of fungicides will un- 
doubtedly be of value in checking the spread of the parasites. 



CORN. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Smut {Ustilago Maydis, DC). — Description. This fungus 
attacks all parts of the corn plant above ground. It forms 
large black swellings on the stalks, ears, and tassels, being espe- 
cially common in the first two places named. It is less fre- 
quently found upon the leaves. It does the greatest damage 
in the ear, for it not only destroys much of the grain, but 
that which remains serves well as a source of infection to the 
crop grown the following year, provided any of it is used for 
seed. 



Cor7u Cotto7i. 277 

Trealment. Effectual remedies for corn smut have not yet 
been found. Some claim that soaking the seed in a fungicide 
or in hot water may assist in preventing the trouble, but so 
many cases are on record in which such treatments were of 
practically no value that they cannot be recommended. 

Insect Enemies. 

Corn is subject to the attacks of a great many forms of 
insects. As these cannot, however, be successfully treated by 
means of the remedies particularly treated of in this work, they 
will not be individually described. Those insects which attack 
the roots of corn, generally appear when the crop has been 
planted upon sod land, and as a rule the older the sod the more 
numerous are the insects. Those which work upon the parts 
of the growing plants above ground are perhaps best treated by 
collecting them by hand and then destroying them. No effec- 
tive remedies are known for several of the pests. If the grain 
is to be stored it will also be exposed to the attacks of certain 
insects. These may be destroyed very easily by the use of the 
bisulphide of carbon ; but the corn must first be placed in a 
tight receptacle. 

COTTON. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Many fungous diseases of cotton have been described,^ but 
apparently no good remedies have yet been discovered. 

Insect Enemies. 

Leaf-worm; Cotton-worm; Cotton-caterpillar (Aletia argil- 
lacea, Hiibn.). — Description. The adult insect is a grayish- 
brown moth whose wings expand nearly one and one-half 
inches. The slender green worms or caterpillars begin to 
appear in early spring, the eggs having been laid upon the 
under side of the young cotton leaves. The number of broods 
varies from three to six, so the transformations take place 
rapidly. 

Treatment. The arsenites are probably the best insecticides 
to use in the destruction of this insect. They may be applied 

1 Atkinson, Ala. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1892, Dec. Bulls. 36 and 41. 



278 The Spraying of Plants. 

either when mixed with water or when dry. The latter method 
is preferred by cotton planters, the undiluted poison being placed 
in osnaburg bags which are held over the plants. Machines 
which use the poisons diluted about ten times with flour or 
plaster are also made. 



COTTONWOOD. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Rust {Melampsora populina, Lev.). — Description. Poplar 
and Cottonwood trees are frequently attacked by a fungus 
which produces an orange-colored powder on the under side 
of the leaves. Such leaves may fall quite early in the year, and 
if the attack is severe, the trees will be partially or entirely 
defoliated. The winter stage of the fungus is found upon the 
under side of the leaves also ; waxy pustules of a brown color 
mark its presence. 

Treatment. This leaf rust may be checked by applications of 
the Bordeaux mixture made early in the season when the first 
leaves have unfolded ; the treatments should be continued at 
intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle of 
July. 

Insect Enemies. 

Leaf-beetle {Lina scripta, Riley). — Description. This beetle 
is neafly three-eighths of an inch in length, of a deep, blue-black 
color, more or less freely marked with yellow, or the ground 
color may be yellow and the markings black. The adults 
hibernate during the winter, and lay their eggs upon the young 
foliage. The eggs soon hatch, and the young black grubs 
begin to feed voraciously, at the same time growing rapidly. 
As the larvc*© grow older this color becomes of a lighter shade. 
They have the j)ower of emitting from the spines found upon 
their bodies a milky liquid possessing a strong odor. There 
are several broods each year. 

Treatment. The arsenites should be freely used for the 
destruction of the first broods, and if the insects appear again 
during the summer, the applications should be repeated. 

Willow-worm. See under Willow. 



Cranberry. 279 

CRANBERRY. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Gall Fungus ; Red Rust {Synchytrium Vaccinii, Thomas). — 
Description. The presence of this fungus m the cranberry 
plant irritates the latter to such an extent that it forms the 
excrescences or galls which have given the popular names to the 
disease. These galls are of a red color, and in New Jersey 
they generally appear upon the young stems, leaves, flowers, 
and fruit, about the first of May. They are quite small, being- 
no larger than one twenty-fifth of an inch, both in length and 
in thickness, but they are frequently so numerous that they 
give to the plant or even to a bog a de- 
cided red color. In such cases the 
affected portions are frequently dwarfed 
and misshapen. Some of the spores 
seem to ripen during the winter or early 
spring, and infection takes place during 
the early growing months of the year. 

Treatment. It has been recommended 
to burn affected j)arts ; and the sugges- 
tion has also been made to keep the bog 
dry during winter and spring. As the ^^^ 51. -Cranberry scald. 
disease apparently progresses by means 

of new infections, as do most of the fungous diseases whicli are 
under control, it seems reasonable to expect that application of 
such fungicides as the Bordeaux mixture or the ammoniacal 
carbonate of copper will prove beneficial if made as soon as 
growth begins in the spring. It would probably be necessary 
to make several such treatments, but the flowering time of the 
plants should be avoided if possible. 

Scald ; Rot. — Description. Scald of cranberries is produced 
by a fungus which attacks the fruit during July and August 
(Fig. 51). The first sign of the disease is the formation of a 
small, soft spot upon one side of the berry ; or the disease may 
appear in different places at the same time. This affected part 
soon extends throughout the entire berry, giving the latter the 
appearance of having been cooked. It is soft and of a light 
brown color, but the skin remains unbroken. Later in the 
season the berry shrivels and may fall to the ground or remain 




280 The Spraying of Plants. 

hanging upon the plant. The foliage is also affected, distinct 
brown areas appearing upon the leaves. The disease is most 
troublesome during warm, moist seasons. 

Treatment. It has been recommended to sand the bog to the 
depth of an inch as a partial remedy. Keeping the bog as dry 
as possible during the summer months is suj>|)osed to be of ser- 
vice. The use of properly applied fungicides appears promis- 
ing, bat the value of these cannot yet be told. 

Insect Enemies. 

Fire-worm ; Cranberry-worm ; Vine-worm ; Blackhead (Rhopo- 
hota vacciniana, Packard). — Description. The moths lay eggs 
on the under side of the leaves during the fall. These do not 
hatch until the following spring, the young larv.TD appearing 
during the latter part of April or in early ]\Iay. The moths 
appear early in June, laying their eggs about the middle of the 
month. The grown larvae have jet-black heads, the body being 
green and having fine hairs scattered over the surface. They 
feed upon the young leaves, and draw these together by means 
of silken threads. The moths are grayish-brown, lighter col- 
ored bands extending across the fore wings; the hind wings are 
dull brown. There are two broods. 

Treatment. The bogs may be flooded after the eggs have 
hatched, in this manner drowning the larvse. Some growers 
prefer to spray the bogs at this time with tobacco water. Kero- 
sene emulsion might answer the same purpose. 

Arsenites, if applied early and thoroughly, have been effectual 
in destroying these insects. Cranberry foliage appears to be 
susceptible to injury from these poisons, so that lime should be 
added. Two quarts of glucose or molasses are said to increase 
their effectiveness. 

Fruit-worm (Acrobasis Vaccinii, Riley). — Description. The 
moths appear early in July and lay their eggs upon the small 
cranberries, generally at the blossom end. The eggs are small, 
flat, and light yellow in color. They hatch in about a week, 
producing a little greenish worm, which, when mature, is about 
half an inch in length. These larvae first feed a day or two upon 
the outside of the berry, after which they enter the fruit, hol- 
lowing it out, and then another berry is attacked. The larvae 
do not pupate till fall, passing the winter in this condition. 



Cranberry^ Cucumber. 281 

Treatment. The habits of this insect render it of easy de- 
struction by the use of the arsenites. The bogs should be 
sprayed as soon as the fruit has set, and later applications be 
made at intervals of about ten days as frequently as appears to 
be necessary. Two treatments will probably prove to be suffi- 
cient in the majority of cases. Xo danger of poisoning the 
berries need be feared. 

There are several other insects which feed upon the foliage 
and the fruit of cranberries ; among them may be mentioned 
a weevil, the yellow-headed cranberry-worm, and the tip-worm. 
Proper applications of the arsenites, if made when the insects 
begin to cause trouble, will practically control the pests. Paris 
green is on the whole the safest insecticide, but it should be 
used with an equal volume of lime. Some farmers use tobacco 
water with satisfactory results. Proper flooding will also mate- 
rially reduce the number of insects. 

CUCUMBER. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew {Erysiphe Cichoracearinn, DC). — Description. The 
cucumber mildew caused by this fungus is found almost en- 
tirely in greenhouses. All parts of the vines are affected, 
although upon the fruit the disease is not so serious. The 
parasite grows merely upon the surface of the plant, producing 
white, moldy areas, which appear as if they consisted of a 
white powder scattered thinly upon the affected part (Pig. 52). 
These may be so abundant that the entire upper surface of a 
leaf is covered, and the stems are frequently surrounded by the 
fungus for a considerable distance. These spots may be easily 
removed by rubbing the leaf, since the only portions of the para- 
site which enter the cucumber plant are small projecting threads 
that enter the cells, and from these the nourishment is drawn. 

Treatment. Fungi growing upon the surface of the host- 
plants may be successfully treated whenever they are seen, and 
the cucumber mildew is no exception to the rule. It may be 
controlled by spraying with a solution of the liver of sulphur, 
the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, or tlie Bordeaux mixture. 
These should be used at about three-fourths their normal 
strength, as cucumber foliage is tender and the disease is not 



282 



The Spraying of Plants. 






Fig. 52. — Cucumber mildew. 



difficult to overcome. The fumes of sulphur are also effective 
in destroying the fungus. This mildew also attacks verbenas, 
in which case applications of the sulphide of potassium have 
given good results. 



Cucumher. 283 

Powdery Mildew (Plasmopara Cubensis, B. & C.) See under 
muskmelon. 

Insect Enemies. 

Melon-louse (Aphis Cuciimeris, Forbes). — Description. TJiis 
louse attacks cucurbitaceous plants, especially cucumbers and 
muskmelon vines, about the middle of June. The affected 
leaves curl, the edges turning downward and inward, and thus 
affording protection to the insects, which propagate at a very 
rapid rate. Large quantities of honey-dew are excreted, and 
in this material a fungus grows wdiich blackens the vines in a 
manner similar to that which occurs on pear trees attacked by 
the psylla. Badly infested plants die. 

Treatment. The vines should be closely watched during the 
season, and the curling leaves should be removed and destroyed 
with the insects upon them. Applications of the Hubbard-Riley 
kerosene emulsion, diluted about fifteen times, made to the 
under side of the leaves will be of value ; or w^hale-oil soap, 
used at the rate of one pound to six gallons of water and simi- 
larly applied, will also prove eifective. The insect is a difficult 
one to keep under control. 

Melon-worm (Eudioptis Jujalinata, Linn.). — Description. The 
adult insect is a moth of bright, pearly-white color. A dark 
border extends along the front and outer edges of the fore 
wings, and along the lateral margin of the hind wings. Tlie 
larv?e are a little over an inch in length, yellowish-green in 
color, a few hairs being scattered over the body. They feed 
upon the foliage and fruit of melons, cucumbers, squashes, etc., 
being particularly destructive in the southern states. 

Treatment. Hellebore may be used successfully ; but the 
arsenites offer perhaps the best means of destroying the insects. 

Spotted Cucumber-beetle ; Southern Corn Root-worm (Diabro- 
tica, l2-punctata, Oliv.), — Description. The adult insect is a 
beetle about one-fourth of an inch in length. It is yellow in 
color, but has twelve black spots upon its back, as its name 
implies The winter is passed in the mature stage. The eggs 
are laid in spring about the roots of cucumbers, squaslies, etc., 
and in the South corri is very commonly selected. The eggs 
produce a slender, dirty-white worm, which is about half an 
inch in length when full grown. There are two broods each 



284 The Spraying of Plants. 

year. The beetles feed upon the plants mentioned above, and 
also upon other garden vegetables. 

Treatment. See under Striped Cucumber-beetle. 

Striped Cucumber-beetle {Diahrotica vittala, Fabr.). — Descrip- 
tion. The beetle appears early in spring and attacks the leaves 
and stems of the cucumber and related plants. Eggs are laid, 
these being placed in the soil at the base of the plants. The eggs 
soon hatch and produce small whitish worms that are about half 
an inch long when full grown. They feed upon tlie roots of 
the plants, causing the latter to wilt and die. The larvae mature 
in about two months, the insect passing the winter in the beetle 
form. It is then very handsome, the back being yellow but 
marked with three black stripes running nearly the length of 
the wing covers. The length of the insect is scarcely a quarter 
of an inch ; but the pest is so abundant in spring that serious 
damage is inflicted if no steps are taken to prevent injury. 

Treatment. The more difficult it is to destroy an insect, the 
more remedies are recommended, and the very number of these 
is good evidence that none are specifics. Powders have gen- 
erally been recommended for the destruction or disposal of the 
two insects abov^e described. Tobacco powder, or dust, is per- 
haps the best of these, especially if a little carbolic acid be 
added to it. The powder may be applied freely to the plants, 
and applications should be repeated at intervals of a few days, 
selecting a time when the plants are wet. In place of the 
above, it has been recommended to use lime, plaster, road-dust, 
etc., and kerosene may be substituted for carbolic acid. The 
arsenites, when used dry and mixed with some of the above, 
may also possess considerable value. All application should be 
made early, and, if possible, to the under side of the leaves. 
Spraying has not yet proved satisfactory. 

Plants are frequently protected by means of a device consist- 
ing of a light frame, as two pieces of barrel-hoops crossing each 
other at right angles, covered by some fine mosquito netting. 
The frame is placed over the young plants, and over this is 
spread the netting. The edges of the latter must be well 
covered M'ith earth, else the beetles will succeed in entering, 
and when once under the netting it appears to be impossible 
for them to get out again. When the plants have made a good 
growth the screens may be removed. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Currant, 285 

CURRANT. 



Anthracnose; Leaf Blight (Gloeosporium Itihis, M. & D.). — De- 
scription. During tlie latter part of June and early in July 
there occasionally appears upon the upper side of the foliage 
of cultivated currants small brownish-black spots, which are 
as yet still confined to the interior of the leaf tissue. As these 
spots enlarge, the epidermis on the upper side of the leaf 
becomes raised and loosened, and this gives a whitish appear- 
ance to the affected part, although the general color of the 
diseased tissue is dull brown. The entire leaf then changes to 
yellow, and finally it falls to the ground, this taking place early 
in August. 

Treatment. Although the disease has apparently remained 
untreated, it is very probable that applications of fungicides, if 
made thoroughly and early in the season, will prove effective 
in controlling the trouble. 

Rust; Leaf Spot (Septoria Rihis, Desm. ; Cercospora angulata, 
Wint.). — Description. This disease attacks all varieties of 
currants, generally appearing a little before midsummer. It 
attacks the foliage of gooseberries as well. The first indica- 
tion of the disease is the appearance of small brown spots upon 
various parts of the foliage (Fig. 53). These may be so abun- 
dant as to form considerable areas. 

What is probably anotlier disease causes the formation of 
whitish spots having black centers. These fungi are often 
present at the same time, and as their histories are not yet 
fully known and their treatment is the same, the two may here 
be considered together. They cause the leaves to fall from the 
bushes when the attack is severe, so that the plants may be 
entirely bare during the latter part of the summer, thus greatly 
weakening them. 

Treatment. The plants should be sprayed wdth a clear fungi- 
cide, as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, to avoid staining 
the fruit. After harvesting, the Bordeaux mixture may be 
used to advantage. The first application of the season should 
be made about two weeks before the spots may be exjiected. 
Since the Bordeaux mixture, if properly prepared, cannot injure 
the plants, it may be freely applied. 



286 



The Spraying of Plmits. 



Insect Enemies. 

Borer; Imported Currant-borer (Sesia [jEgeria^ tipuliformis, 
Linn.). — Description. The parent moth, which is about three- 
quarters of an inch across the expanded wings, is bluish-black 
in color, and has three yellow bars extending across the abdo- 
men. The eggs are laid in the spring, and the small white 
larvae which soon appear gnaw to the pith, upon which they 
feed. They pupate in the fall, but the moth does not appear 




Fig. 53. — Currant leaf spot. 



till the following spring. The presence of this borer materially 
reduces the vitality of the cane in which it feeds, to the injury 
of the crop. Gooseberry plants are also occasionally affected. 

Treatment. The best way to overcome the pest is to watch 
for weak canes, and when these are found they should be cut 
off close to the ground and burned. 

Currant-worm; Currant Saw-fly; Gooseberry Saw-fly; Im- 
ported Currant- worm (Nematus ventricosns Klug.). — Descrip- 
tion. The currant-worm was imported from Europe probably 
some years before 1860. The adult insect is a four-winged 
fly which bears a certain resemblance to the common house- 



Currant. 287 

fly, oxcept that it is soinewliat larger and has a yellowish 
appearance. Tliese flies may be seen in abundance in early 
spring hovering about the currant and gooseberry bushes, just 
as the first leaves are expanding. The small, white eggs are 
laid on the under side of these leaves, generally in rows along 
the larger veins. The eggs hatch in a week or ten days, and 
the worms immediately begin feeding. The presence of these 
insects is frequently not noticed until fully one-half or two- 
thirds of the leaves have been destroyed ; this arises from the 
fact that the eggs are almost invariably laid upon the leaves 
which are near the ground, and also near the center of the 
plant. The upper foliage is therefore reserved till the last, and 
then when this also is gone the bushes appear as if suddenly 
defoliated. The young larv?e are at first whitish in color ; they 
soon become gi-eeu, and later they are spotted with black. 
Before pupating they again become green. There are from 
two to four broods a year. 

Treatment. There is no insect which is more easily con- 
trolled than the ciu-rant-worm, yet there is scarcely one which 
is left so undisturbed in its destructive work. The principal 
trouble is that the pest is not noticed until the currants are 
about one-half grown, and at that time much damage has 
already been done, and eggs are being laid for a second brood. 
If the plants be thoroughly sprayed with an arsenite as soon as 
the first leaves are nearly grow^n, no injury will be done to the 
fruit, and practically all of the first brood will be killed, and 
with it the second one also. But this first treatment must be 
made early. If later ones are necessary, hellebore will be found 
an effectual remedy, whether applied dry or mixed witli water. 
Such applications will also free the bushes from other leaf- 
eating insects. 

Four-lined Leaf-bug ; Black-lined Plant-bug ; Four-striped 
Plant-bug; Yellow-lined Currant-bug (Pcecilocapsus lineatus, 
Fabr.). — Description. The mature insect (Fig. 5-4) is a bug 
about one-third of an inch long. Its back is yellow, but four 
black stripes extend nearly its entire length, and these have 
given rise to the many popular names of the insect. Eggs are 
laid near the tips of the soft growths about a week after the 
appearance of the adults. The eggs do not hatch until the 
following spring, the young insects appearing during the latter 



288 



The Spraying of Plants. 




Fig. 54. — Four-lined Icaf-buj,'' of currants, adult. 



part of May. While young they are briglit red in color, but 
later more black appears (Fig. 55). The adult insect may be 

found during June 
and July. The in- 
sects attack the 
leaves at the tips of 
the shoots, sucking 
out the juices. This 
causes the forma- 
tion of small, brown, 
angtdar areas of 
dead tissue (Fig. 
56), which at once 
indicate the pres- 
ence of this bug by 
giving the leaves a 
characteristic spot- 
ted appearance. 
Treattnenf. The 
insect is extremely active during the day, but in the early 
morning it may be 
jarred from the cur- 
rant or gooseberry 
bushes and caught 
in pans containing 
kerosene. Kero- 
sene emulsion, con- 
taining at least 9 
per cent of the oil, 
will destroy the im- 
mature insects, but 
it must be made 
still stronger to kill 
the adults. The 
young insects 
should be destroyed 
if possible. A third 
way to overcome 
the pest, and perhaps the best one, is to cut off the tips of the 
shoots which carry eggs and then destroy them. 




Fig. 55. — Four-lined leaf-buj;, immature form. 



Currant. 



289 



Green Leaf-hopper; Currant Leaf-hopper (Empoa albojjicla, 
Forbes). — Dcscriplion. These insects are true bugs. They 
are rather slender, and about an eighth of an inch in length. 
The color is light green, almost white. The insects suck the 
juices from the nnder side of the foliage, and this causes the 
formation on the upper surface of white areas which invariably 




Fig. 56. — Currant foliage injured by the four-lined leaf-bug. 



indicate the presence of the pest. Currants and gooseberries 
suffer most severely from the first brood, during :May and June. 
Treatment. Insecticides which kill by contact must be used. 
Kerosene emulsion, if directed towards the under surface of the 
leaves, will destroy great numbers. Pyrethrum may be used 
successfully, if the plants ai-e first thoroughly wet, and the 
powder then freely dusted upon the foliage, from beneath 
u 



290 The Spraying of Plants. 

if possible. Tobacco dust or liquor, or some of the many liquid 
commercial insecticides, will prove of value if properly applied. 
Whale-oil soap has also been recommended. 

DAHLIA. 

Four-lined Plant-bug. See under Currant. 
Green Lettuce-worm. See under Lettuce. 

EGGPLANT. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Anthracnose (Glceosporkwi Melongenea, E. & Hals.). — De- 
scription. This fungus appears to attack the fruit more 
seriously than the other parts of eggplants. It causes the 
formation of shallow pits in which very small pink blotches 
appear. The disease has as yet not caused much loss, and no 
attempts directed towards its treatment appear to have been 
made. It is probable that the remedies recommended for the 
leaf spot will be sufficient for checking the anthracnose. 

Leaf Spot {Phyllosticta hortorum, Speg.). — Descrijjtion. AVhen 
this fungus attacks the foliage of eggplants it causes the leaf 
tissue to turn brown, and later it becomes dry and brittle. 
These parts may in a short time fall from the leaf, forming 
openings of varying sizes. When several of such areas are 
situated near each other, large portions of the leaf may be 
affected, and it frequently happens that tlie plants lose nearly 
all their foliage in this manner. The fruit appears to be 
affected by the same fungus. Here it appears as a dark dis- 
coloration which causes the fruit to rot, and consequently 
renders it worthless for market. 

Treatment. If the leaf-spot fungus is feared, the young 
plants should be sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture as soon 
as they have become established in the field. Applications 
should be repeated at intervals of two or three weeks. When 
the fruit is approaching maturity, a clear fungicide should be 
applied in place of the Bordeaux mixture, to avoid staining the 
fruit. 

Insect Enemies. 

Potato-beetle. See under Potato^ 



Elm, 291 

ELM. 
Insect Enemies. 

Canker-worm. See under Apple. 

Elm Span-worm (Eugonia subsignaria, Pliibn.). — Description. 
These insects hatch from eggs as soon as the buds break in the 
spring. The larvse are commonly known as measuring, or 
span-worms. They are grayish-brown in color, having a large, 
red head, and the last segment of the body is of the same 
color. The larvae pupate about the end of June, and during 
July and August the mature insect appears. It is a pure white 
moth, the wings expanding nearly one and one-half inches. 

Treatment. When possible, the affected trees should be 
thoroughly sprayed wdtli Paris green used at the rate of one 
pound to 150 gallons of water. This is the best remedy against 
all insects w^hich work on the foliage of shade trees, but when 
the trees are large much difficulty is experienced in reaching 
all parts. See also page 19.5. 

Gipsy Moth (Ocneria (hspcn% Linn.). — Description. The 
gipsy moth is found in America only in the immediate vicinity 
of Boston. It has there caused great damage, as tlie larvae are 
voracious feeders and take kindly to nearly all foliage. The 
eggs of the moth are laid during July, August, and September, 
generally near the pupa case of the female. They are deposited 
in clusters, and covered with a thick layer of yellow hairs. The 
following spring the young caterpillars ap23ear, and for about 
ten weeks they feed upon the foliage of most plants. "When 
grown they are tw^o inches or more in length, and greenish- 
brown in color. Each segment of the body bears upon either 
side a tuft of hairs, while along the back there is a double row 
of spots, those on the four anterior segments being purj^le in 
color ; the remainder are brown. The insects pupate in some 
sheltered spot on the trees, or in neighboring fences, etc. In 
this state they remain about ten days, when the adults appear. 

Treatment. The caterpillars are readily destroyed by the 
arsenites, Paris green and the arsenate of lead having been 
most extensively used. The latter is effective when used at the 
rate of two pounds to 150 gallons of water. It is not feasible 
in many cases to make such applications, so the insects are 
destroyed by collecting the eggs, and destroying them, and also 



292 The Spraying of Plants. 

by trapping the lavv?e under bands of burlap, or some similar 
material, bound about the trunks of the trees.i 

Imported Elm-leaf beetle; Elm Flea-beetle (Galenica xantho- 
melcena, Schr.). — Description. The mature insect resembles 
the striped cucumber-beetle in size and markings. The larva 
is long, slender, and yellowish-black. It has a yellow band ex- 
tending along the back and sides. The pest is most active from 
May till August, eating the soft tissues of the leaf, but not the 
veins. There are three or four broods. Serious eastward. 

Treatment. The arsenites should be used when possible, 
spraying the tree thoroughly. When large trees are attacked, 
the insects may be destroyed by pouring hot water into all 
crevices and cracks about the base of the tree and in the imme- 
diate neighborhood. The insects pupate at the surface of the 
ground wherever a slight shelter can be found. Kerosene 
emulsion applied in the same manner would also probably 
prove effective in their destruction . 

Willow-worm. See under Willow. 



GOOSEBERRY. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew (Sphoerotheca Mors-uvce, B. & C). — Description. The 
fungus attacks the foliage and young fruits soon after the buds 
have broken. The first appearance is the formation of a cob- 
web-like covering which fits close to the plant. Later these 
areas become whitish, and apparently sprinkled with a fine 
white powder. Affected leaves and shoots are checked in their 
growth, and finally they become dry and brown ; diseased shoots 
often branch freely (Fig. 57). The berries are checked in 
their growth, and generally drop from the bushes long before 
the time of maturity. They also show the powdery covering. 

Treatment. The disease is caused by a surface fungus, and 
the white threads seen on the host-plants form the body of the 
parasite. This may be destroyed by applications of fungicides, 
especially some of the copper compounds, or of the sulphide of 
potassium. Weekly applications of the latter have given excel- 
lent results. To avoid staining the berries, clear fungicides 

^ See the reports of the Mass. State Bd. of Agric. ou the " Extermination of the 
Gipsy Moth." 



G-ooseherry, 



293 



sliould be used, although the Bordeaux mixture may be applied 
once or twice early in the season. The first application should 
be made before the buds start in the spring. 

Insect Enemies. 

Gooseberry Fruit-worm (Daknima convolutella, Hiibn.). — De- 
scription. A pale, gray moth lays its eggs upon the young 




Fig. 57. — Gooseberry mildew. The shoot on the left was sprayed, the other not. 

gooseberries in early spring, and the larva} which appear enter 
the berries and feed within them. This causes the fruit to 
ripen prematurely. When the worm is full grown it is about 
three-fourths of an incli in length ; its head is brown, l)ut the 
body is light green. It leaves the berry and enters the ground, 
passing the winter in the pupa state. 



294 The Sprayiyig of Plarits. 

Treatment. The affected berries should be destroyed when 
discovered. Poulti'}' will aid in destroying the larvae before 
they pupate. It has been recommended to spray with 
the sulphur and whale-oil soap wash just before the eggs are 
laid. 

The other insects which work upon gooseberries have been 
mentioned under Currant, which see. 



GRAPE. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Anthracnose ; Scab; Bird's-eye Rot (SpJmcelonia Ainpelinum, 
DeBary). — Description. Anthracnose is perhaps the most 
formidable disease with which the vineyardist has to contend. 
It does not yield to the same treatment which checks the other 
fungous diseases of the grape, and even when applications are 
made which are especially designed for its control, the results 
are not invariably satisfactory. The vines should therefore be 
watched, that the first sign of the disease may lead to its timely 
treatment. 

The fungus causing anthracnose attacks the fruit, the leaves, 
and the stems, in fact, all green parts of the vine. It may 
appear any time during the growing season of the plant, but 
most commonly affects the berries during the middle and latter 
l^art of summer. The name '' anthracnose " is now generally 
used in this country and in Europe. It is formed from two 
Greek words meaning " coal " and " disease," the dark discolora- 
tion of the affected part suggesting the name. 

The shoots of the grape are very subject to the attacks of 
the fungus. The first indication of the trouble is a darkening 
and sinking of small, oval areas which extend lengthwise of 
the stem. These may be very abundant, giving the shoots a 
speckled appearance. The spots gradually enlarge, and the 
center assumes a gray color, the edges still remaining dark, and 
having a more or less decided tinge of purple. After the 
disease has progressed some weeks, the stem is very seriously 
injured, and if there have been several points of attack, its 
growth may be entirely checked and the shoot destroyed. 
Upon the leaf the disease causes changes very similar to those 
of the stem, but there is a reddish-brown color in the affected 



Grape. 295 

areas, which renders it more difficult to distinguish this disease 
from some others. But one peculiarity of anthracuose is that 
it generally attacks the veins of the leaves, as well as the leaf- 
stems, and so its identification is not always difficult. The 
stems of the clusters are also injured, and it frequently occurs 
that a part is completely girdled, causing a " ring-around," as it 
is commonly called. The berries below the ring do not ripen, 
but remain green, and gradually shrivel. 

Tlie berries of some varieties of grapes are almost invariably 
affected to such an extent as to render them unfit for market. 
The Vergennes, Diamond, Salem, Agawam, and many others 
are very susceptible to its attacks. The first indication of the 
presence of the fungus on the berries is the formation of dis- 
tinct brown spots which are practically cu'cular in outline 
(Fig. 58). The discolored part is sunken, and may be bor- 
dered by a margin which has a tinge of red or purple. If a 
berry is attacked in several places, it becomes speckled in 
appearance, until the spots grow into each other, forming con- 
siderable areas of irregular outline. The portions first diseased 
may change to a lighter, or even to a gray color, on account of 
the rupturing of the epidermis or outer skin, forming a hard- 
ened " scab." 

Treatment. In Europe, where the fungus has long been 
known, it is the custom to wash tlie vines and the stakes during 
winter or early spring with the sulphuric acid and sulphate of 
iron solution. The liquid is applied by means of swabs or 
brushes. It blackens the canes, and this is a test of the 
thoroughness of the work. See pages 45, 152. 

If, after two or three days, there remain portions which are 
unchanged in color, the vineyard is treated a second time, par- 
ticular attention being paid to the parts omitted at the first 
treatment. In addition to these winter treatments, the vines 
are sprayed during the summer months with the Bordeaux 
mixture. As these applications are made more particularly for 
other diseases, the downy mildew and the black rot, they will 
not be mentioned here in detail. 

European vineyardists seem to have perfect control of anthrac- 
uose by following the above line of treatments, and the work 
done in America is also promising. The cost of washing vines 
and stakes in this country scarcely exceeds two dollars per acre, 



296 



The S'praymg of Plants. 



as shown by actual trials, and marked benefits appear to have 
followed the practice, even under adverse circumstances. Vine- 





'•3^ V 






Fig. 58. — Brighton grapes affected with anthracnose. 



yardists whose grapes are troubled with anthracnose are advised 
to give the above remedy a thorough trial, for it is the best as 
yet known. 



ara2:>e. 297 

Black Rot ; Charbon (Lfcstadla Bithrellii, V. & R. ; PJwma uvicoJa, 
B. & C). — Description. The name "black rot" has been com- 
monly applied to this disease on account of the appearance of 
the affected berries, these being of a deep black color. But the 
fungus causing the rotting of the fruit also attacks other parts 
of the plant. On the shoots it forms dark, oval areas, which 
are slightly sunken. The centers of such spots are more or less 
thickly studded with very small elevations or pimples, these 
being characteristic of the disease, and by their aid the trouble 
can in most cases be identified. Affected leaves turn to a dark, 
reddish-brown color at the injured part. These portions are 
generally found between the larger veins, and not centered 
upon them, as in the case of anthracnose. Their outlines are 
generally rounded. 

To the vineyardist such attacks are, however, of slight im- 
portance as compared with those which injure the fruit. There 
is probably no fungous disease of the grape which annually 
causes greater losses than the black rot. Although each berry 
must be separately aifected, since the disease does not spread 
from one to the other by means of the stems, yet the conditions 
are generally so faA^orable that a large percentage of the crop is 
annually lost. This applies particularly to southern vineyards, 
for in them the disease is much more virulent than at the 
North. In New York, the fungus is not generally serious, only 
those regions beino- visited in which the climate is ameliorated 
by bodies of water, or by other local conditions. Localities in 
which the Catawba ripens well may be considered as subject to 
the disease ; colder climates are comparatively exempt. 

Grapes which show the attacks of the black-rot fungus are 
generally nearly or quite full grown (Fig. 59). It is therefore 
during August and September that the disease is most to be 
feared. If the berries are still green when the fungus gains an 
entrance, the affected part turns a purplish brown, this color 
gradually extending to the entire berry, which still retains its 
form and firmness. The part first attacked gradually becomes 
blackened, and characteristic pimples appear. At the same 
time the berry shrivels and becomes strongly ridged, the seeds 
projecting prominently under the drawn skin ; the entire berry 
is then black, and minute elevations may be seen scattered 
thickly over its surface. These changes may take place very 



298 The Spraying of Plants. 

rapidly, so that apparently in a few days a crop may be largely 
reduced. It seems to require about a week for the disease to 
become noticeable after infection takes place, the rapidity of 
the later changes depending very largely upon the condition of 
the weather. A warm, moist atmosphere is particularly favor- 
able to the development of this fungus. 

Treatment. Although the black rot appears late in the season, 
it is always safe to begin early in treating the vines. The cop- 
per compounds, especially the Bordeaux mixture, have shown 
themselves to be practically specifics against this disease. Ap- 
plications should be made before the disease has appeared. In 
the South, where the rot is a regular visitor, the treatments may 
be commenced to advantage as soon as the first leaves have 
fully expanded. The second application may be made after the 
vines have blossomed, and the third from two to four weeks 
later, depending upon the season. The Bordeaux mixture may 
be used with safety up to the time when the berries are three- 
fourths grown, but if used later than this, there is danger of 
staining the clusters and reducing their market value. This 
may be partially avoided by reducing the strength of the normal 
mixture one-fourth or one-third ; although not so effective as 
the sti'onger mixture, the dilute form still possesses much value 
as a fungicide, and it may be used to advantage. Or the 
ammoniacal carbonate of copper may be used in its place, and 
this is the fungicide very commonly employed when the later 
applications are made. If the weather is favorable to the dis- 
ease, applications should be made about every ten days after the 
fruit is groAvn. Six or seven applications should practically 
prevent the appearance of the disease, even in badly infested 
districts. 

In the North, where the attacks are not so severe, the treat- 
ments need not be begun so early. If the vines are thoroughly 
sprayed about the first of July, and two additional applications 
are made at intervals of two or three weeks, little trouble need 
be anticipated from black rot. 

But everything depends upon the thoroughness with which 
the work is done. It was formerly supposed that to spray the 
clusters was injurious to them ; but this is a fallacy. The clus- 
ters should be treated as well as the foliage, especially when 
they are young, and if the practice can be continued without 




Fig. 59. — Concord grape attacked by black rot. 

299 



300 The Spraying of Plants. 

injury to the ajjpearance of the fruit, so much the better. It 
is necessary that the growth from the spores which fall upon 
the berries should be stopped, and this can only be accomplished 
by treating the clusters, as well as the other parts of the vine. 

The cost of spraying grape-vines depends upon a great many 
factors, all of which cannot here be discussed in detail. Good 
machinery is of the greatest importance, for upon this depends 
the quality of the spray. Reliable help will also increase the 
cost of the work, for such men will use more time and more 
material than shiftless workers. Yet only such labour should 
be employed. The time of the year also affects the cost of the 
work, since early in the year there is much less surface to be 
covered. The character of the season also influences the total 
outlay of the year, for in some seasons twice as many appli- 
cations may be required as during others. A few data regard- 
ing the spraying of grapes may be mentioned, with the assurance 
that they will serve as guides to those beginning the work. 

Taking an average of the applications made during the entire 
season, it may be said that each vine should receive approxi- 
mately one quart of liquid at each application. The cost of 
material and labor should not much exceed one-half a cent per 
vine for each treatment, whether the Bordeaux mixture or tlie 
ammoniacal carbonate of copper is used, the latter being a little 
more expensive. When this small outlay is compared with 
the great benefits which so commonly result from the work, it 
is strange that the practice is not more generally followed. The 
above figures refer to vines of the Concord type, these making 
a very extensive growth. For less vigorous varieties the cost 
may be reduced, and the use of some of the machines now 
manufactured will still further lessen the expense. This is 
especially true in the North, where the black rot and other 
fungous diseases of the grape are not so serious as southward. 

Downy Mildew ; Brown Rot ; Gray Rot {Peronospora viticola, 
DeBary). — Description. This fungus attacks the stems, foli- 
age, and fruit of the grape-vine. While it is not generally so 
serious as the black rot, in the northern states it is more com- 
monly seen, and probably causes the loss of more grapes than 
its southern neighbor. 

The external characters of the downy mildew are very dis- 
tinct. On the shoots it causes the formation of brown, slightly 



Grape. 



301 



sunken areas; these maybe easily distinguished from the deeper 
and more distinctly marked spots caused by anthracnose. But 





X 







y 



Fig. 60. —Downy mildew upon grajie foliage. 



it is only in very severe cases that the shoots are affected to an 
injurious extent. It is on the foliage and on the fruit that the 
greatest harm is done. The foliage (Fig. GO) first shows the 



302 The Spraying of Plmits. 

presence of the parasite by portions of the leaf turning a lighter 
green than that of the normal tissue. Later, these parts turn 
yellow, and wlien the destruction of the tissue is complete, the 
parts affected are of a brown color. If the under surface of 
such leaves is examined, it will be found that there is a frost- 
like substance projecting from the discolored part of the leaf 
after the upper surface has begun to turn yellow. This appear- 
ance is due to the formation of fimgous threads which project 
beyond the leaf surface and bear the summer spores of the 
parasite. This appearance assists materially in identifying the 
disease. 

The fruit is also very susceptible to the attacks of the downy 
mildew ; but when that is affected, the vine does not suffer so 
much as the grower does. In case of diseased foliage, the crop 
of the next year, as well as that of the present, is threatened ; 
but with diseased fruit it is only a matter of the present year, 
which is all-sufficient to make the grower anxious to know 
what can be done. 

In the southern states the mildew appears during June, but 
in the North it is not feared before July. The young berries 
suffer very extensively. They are generally attacked before 
they are one-half grown. The name " brown rot " has been 
applied to such fruit on account of the brown color which sup- 
plants the green. Later, as the fungus matures, the affected 
berries become covered with a whitish powder, — the fruiting 
threads and the spores of the parasite, — and this gives the ber- 
ries a gray color, from which has come one of the popular names 
of the disease. Both forms of the rot are nevertheless caused by 
the same organism, although the external characters differ. 

Treatment. The downy mildew of grapes may attack the 
vines throughout the growing season, and for this reason it 
is more essential that applications be made earlier in the 
year than those necessary for the control of the black rot. 
Where downy mildew is found, an application made when the 
shoots have grown from six to ten inches is a very important 
one. The second should be made after the vines have blos- 
somed, and later ones should succeed each other at intervals of 
two to four weeks, taking the same precautions against stain- 
ing the fruit as mentioned under Black Rot. The treatments 
should be preventive rather than curative. 



G-rape. 303 

Powdery Mildew (Uncinula spi7'alts, B. & C.).^ — Description. 
The fungus causing the powdery mildew of the grape differs 
from the preceding diseases in the fact that it is a surface 
fungus, the body of the parasite not being found in the tissues 
of tlie host-phmt, but upon the surface of the green parts. 
The vines are attacljed throughout the growing season, but 
contrary to the general rule, the disease develops more abun- 
dantly during comparatively dry weather. It is therefore 
found over a wide territory, but fortunately it is not as a 
rule very serious. 

Young shoots attacked by the powdery mildew are checked 
in their growth, and if the threads of the fungus are abun- 
dant, they impart to the affected portion a grayish-white color. 
This color is particularly noticeable upon the leaves (Fig. 61), 
for the fungus almost invariably grows upon their upper sur- 
face, and if allowed to develop unchecked, large patches soon 
become covered so thickly that the green parts underneath can 
no longer be seen. If these patches are firmly rubbed, the 
white covering may be removed, and the browning of the parts 
formerly covered will be seen. This is especially distinct when 
the mildew has made an energetic growth. The discoloration 
is due to the small suckers which the fungus has projected into 
the leaf cells for the purpose of obtaining nourishment, and the 
greater the number of these suckers, the more marked is the 
discoloration. 

Affected berries show similar discolorations, and the whitish 
covering may be removed as well. As the berry grows, the 
injured parts assmne a brown, scurfy covering which is com- 
posed of dried epidermis. This golden-brown film is very 
commonly seen upon green grapes ; it is often cracked so tliat 
the green tissue is visible. Such disfigurements are, however, 
not always caused by the powdery mildew, since any cause 
which destroys portions of the epidermis will be followed by 
similar discolorations. 

Treatment. The powdery mildew is not a serious disease, 
and as the body of the fungus is not within the host-plant, 
there is little occasion for treating the vines until the fungus 

1 The common surface mildew of European vines is Oulium Tuckeri. 1}. In 
^'eneral aijpearance it resembles our powdery mildew. IJut it is more easily con- 
trolled, the flowers of sulphur having long proved to be a specific. 



304 



The Spraying of Plants. 



has put in an appearance. Sulphur has been very generally 
recommended for its destruction, the application being made 
either with the dry powder, or after the sulphur has been 
mixed with water. This remedy has not given uniformly good 
results out of doors, and a safer plan is to use some of the 
copper compounds. Carbonate of copper dissolved in ammonia 




Fig. 61. — A fresh attack of powdery mildew upon grape foliage. 



is an excellent remedy, and it is easily applied. All parts of 
the plants should be treated. 

Rattles ; Shelling. — Description. It frequently occurs that 
grape-vines drop their berries just as the latter are ripening. 
The outer extremities of the clusters are first affected. This 
trouble is primarily caused by defective nutrition of the berries, 
and, although to a certain extent influenced by the action of 



Grape. 305 

fungi and insects, the remedial measures should be directed 
towards strengthening the plant by means of proper fertil- 
izers, potash being perhaps the most important element re- 
quired. See Cornell Bulletin^ 76, for a full account of the 
troul)le. 

Ripe Rot; Bitter Rot (Glceosporium fructigenum, Berk.). — 
Description. The names given this disease are suggestive of 
the time in which the berries are attacked, and what eifect the 
fungus has upon the flavor of the fruit. The disease may 
attack the fruit stems, and cause the berries to wilt on account 
of the supph^ of nourishment being cut off. But more com- 
monly the berries are directly attacked. Such fruit shows a 
reddish-brown discoloration at the affected point, and this color 
soon extends over tlie entire berry. The surface then becomes 
dotted with black pimples as in the case of black rot, but liere 
they are not so numerous, and they are also larger but less ele- 
vated. The berry also shrivels, but the black color is wanting, 
since those affected with ripe rot remain dark purplish brown, 
although some assume a red tint. As a rule, they fall to the 
ground when this stage is reached, while berries destroyed by 
black rot remain upon the vine even until the following spring. 

Ripe rot will spread after the grapes have been harvested, and 
care should therefore be exercised in selecting only sound fruit 
when it is to be stored. See under Apple, page 24:0. 

Treatment. The same treatment which serves to check black 
rot will also control this disease, the later treatments being of 
special importance. 

Insect Enemies. 

Grape-slug; Grape-sawfly (Selandria Vitis, Harris). — Descrip- 
tion. The adult, a small four-winged fly, lays its eggs in 
little clusters on the under side of the young leaves. These 
eggs produce small yellowish-green larvae, which feed in groups, 
beginning at the margin of the leaf and eating inwards until 
the leaf is destroyed. Others are then attacked, and it fre- 
quently occurs that very serious injury to the vineyard is done 
by this insect. There are two broods, the first appearing in 
spring, and the second in July or August. The winter is passed 
in the pupal state. 

X 



306 The Spraying of Plants. 

Treatment. The larvae are easily destroyed by spraying af- 
fected vines with an insecticide, such as an arsenite, hellebore, 
or kerosene emulsion. 

Grape-vine Flea-beetle ; Steely-bug {Graptodera chalyhea, 
Illig.). — Description. This insect passes the winter in the 
adult form. As soon as the buds of the grape commence to 
swell in the spring the beetles begin feeding, the centers of the 
buds appearing to contain the most coveted portions. When a 
bud has been eaten in this manner it is of course useless, and in 
cases of severe attacks, which sometimes occur, the entire crop 
of the year may be ruined in a short time. The beetles feed 
for about a month, w^hen eggs are laid in clusters on the under 
side of the leaves. Small, dark-brown larvae soon appear, and 
these immediately feed upon the foliage. In about four weeks 
they leave the vines and pupate, the adult beetle appearing in 
about three weeks. It then continues feeding until fall. 

Treatment. This insect is very easily controlled. The vines 
should be sprayed with Paris green when the beetles first attack 
the buds, and again when the young larvae appear. One or 
two applications made during each of these two periods will 
practically clear a vineyard of the pest. 

Leaf-hopper; Thrip (^Erythroneura Vitis, Harris). — Descrip- 
tion. This insect passes the wdnter in the adult form. It is 
about an eighth of an inch long, of a white color, but marked 
by three dark red bands. Eggs are laid in the leaves, the larvae 
appearing in June. These miniature forms are without wings? 
but otherwise closely resemble the adult, except in being smaller. 
They moult several times, their white cast-off skins adhering to 
the under surfaces of the leaves for some time. They feed 
upon the juices of the plant. Grapes having thin foliage suffer 
more from these insects than do the heavier-leaved varieties. 
The affected leaves appear indistinctly spotted with white on 
the upper surface, and frequently much injury is done to the 
vine. 

Treatment. The treatment of this pest is unsatisfactory. If 
the fallen foliage is gathered and destroyed so the insects can- 
not find proper shelter during the winter, their number will be 
materially reduced. The remedies suggested for the currant 
leaf-hopper may be of avail in the vineyard. 



G-reenJiouse Troubles. 307 



GREENHOUSE PESTS. 

Fungi Infesting Plants. 

There is such an enormous variety of plants gro^Yn under 
glass that each cannot here be treated individually. Nor is this 
necessary, for a few general directions may be made to cover 
almost all cases. Fungi as a rule prefer a warm, moist atmos- 
phere for their growth, and this is generally found in a green- 
house, as it is essential to the proper development of many 
plants. But the general opinion of gardeners is that even when 
such conditions exist, mildews need not necessarily appear. It 
is said that extremes of temperature, of humidity, and draughts 
of air are conducive to disease, and common practice tends 
strongly to support the notion. Such conditions should there- 
fore be avoided as far as possible. 

Some of the surface fungi found on plants grown under glass, 
especially in houses improperly ventilated, are destroyed by 
spraying the foliage with clear water or with some prepared 
insecticide or fungicide, soapy mixtures being most commonly 
employed. Fungi which cannot be disposed of in this manner 
are reduced by removing diseased parts of the host-plant and 
destroying them. This tends to prevent new infections, and it 
is a process which well repays the outlay of time and labor. 

Sulphur is probably the most valuable preventive of the fun- 
gous disease's which attack greenhouse plants. It may be used 
in various ways. An early method of making applications, and 
one still employed, is to dust the plants with the dry powder. 
This is effective in destroying several surface mildews. A prep- 
aration of sulphur formerly very generally employed is in 
liquid form. It is the Eau Orison of the French, and is very 
valuable in the treatment of diseases which may be controlled 
by the powder. But the most efficient method of using sulphur 
is to place it in a warm situation so that it will rapidly give oft" 
its fumes, and still not take fire. It may be mixed with equal 
parts of lime or some similar powder, and then by the aid of 
water, oil, or other liquid, it is wet until a thin paste is formed. 
This is then smeared upon the heating surfaces of the house. 
Or the sulphur may be evaporated in a sand bath over an oil 
stove, but in such cases extreme care must be exercised that 



308 The Spraying of Plants. 

the material does not take fire, for tlii,s means instant death to 
all plants reached by the fumes. 

If, in spite of the above precautions, fungi are still present 
to an injurious extent, the next plan to follow is to apply some 
of the standard liquid fungicides to the threatened plants, pre- 
ferring those remedies which are clear solutions, for these dis- 
figure even the most delicate colors to only a very small extent. 
If this does not prove effectual, the plants should be thrown 
away, and the grower might do well to try some other business. 

Insects Infesting Plants. 

The number of different insects injurious to greenhouse plants 
is rather small, although the number of the individuals of each 
kind may be large enough. These creatiu'es for the most part 
require different methods for their extermination, and each of 
the more important will be treated in detail. 

Aphis; Green-fly; Plant Lice. — Description. These sucking 
insects are too well known to require description, for they attack 
nearly all greenhouse plants. They reproduce with extreme 
rapidity, and must therefore be continually watched. Affected 
leaves generally curl, the insects being found on the under side. 
When the stems are attacked, frequently no external sign of 
the insect's presence is visible except the insect itself. 

Treatment. Insecticides which kill by contact must be em- 
ployed for destroying the aphis. Kerosene emulsion, pyre- 
thrum, tobacco water, etc., may be used with success. But the 
most common method of clearing a house of these creatures is 
to fumigate with tobacco stems. A common coal scuttle will 
answer the purpose well; when filled with the stems it will 
supply smoke sufficient for a house containing from three thou- 
sand to five thousand cubic feet. The amount to use will vary 
with the tightness of the house and the quality of the stems. 
The stems should be sufficiently moist to prevent them from 
blazing. They may be ignited very easily with some paper or 
shavings. If the house is a very tight one, it is well to admit 
air after the fumes have been in about an hour, but in the ma- 
jority of establishments this point takes care of itself. If only 
few plants are to be treated, they may be placed singly under a 
paper flour-sack or in a box, and then smoked, care being taken 
not to use too much tobacco. Some commercial preparations of 



Greenhouse Pests. 309 

tobacco are excellent, for they are as efficient as the steni^r, and 
are almost free from smoke and leave no offensive odor. If 
powders are preferred for destroying- aphis, pyrethrum will be 
found efficient, especially if the plants have been wet previous 
to the application ; tobacco dust will also answer the same 
purpose. 

Foliage-eating Insects, of which there are many kinds, should 
be treated by making applications of such insecticides as Paris 
green, hellebore, etc., but the foliage of many plants is easily 
injured by the arsenites, so these should be used cautiously. 
Picking the insects off by hand is another means of clearing 
the plants. 

Mealy-bug {Dactyloplns adonuhim, Linn.). — Description. 
Mealy-bugs are familiar to all who have grown plants under 
glass. They are sucking insects, and are covered witli a whitish 
powder from which they have received their common name. 
There is also a considerable quantity of a cotton-like material 
present where these insects have been allowed to multiply, and 
thus they may be easily recognized. All the green parts of 
affected plants are susceptible to their attacks. 

Treatment. Although the mealy-bug is one of the oldest and 
best known of greenhouse pests, still no very satisfactory remedy 
for it has yet been discovered. The most practical plan is to 
throw forcible streams of water against them, so that they may be 
dislodged. If this practice is persisted in, it will prove very effect- 
ive. But all plants will not bear such treatment, and it is not 
always possible to throw the Mater, so that the remedy has a 
somewhat limited application. AVhere it cannot be employed, 
the alcoholic decoction of pyrethrum will be found of great 
service. It should be applied by means of a small atomizer, 
and the insect should be treated until it is seen that the liquid 
has penetrated the woolly covering and has reached the body. 
Tlie latter then turns yellowish-brown. Comparatively few 
plants are injured by this remedy, and its adoption is recom- 
mended. Kerosene emulsion, and commercial insecticides, as 
fir-tree oil, are also of value. Plants should be treated early, so 
that the insect may not obtain a foothold. 

Mite; Verbena Mite (Tetrani/chus bimaculatus, Harvey). — ■ 
Description. This mite is as yet not very well known in green- 
houses. It is very similar to the red spider in size, shape, and 



310 The Spraying of Plants. 

habits, but it is not red, and it has two dark spots at the rear 
of the back. 

Treatment. The mite is perhaps the most difficult to over- 
come of all insects found in the greenhouse. Unlike the red 
spider, it is but little affected by a moist atmosphere, or by 
moisture upon the infested parts. If water is forcibly sprayed 
upon the insects so that they will be dislodged, some good will 
result. But all plants cannot withstand this treatment. The 
best method of destroying the mite is probably to use kerosene 
emulsion containing from twenty to twenty-five parts of water 
to one of oil, or to apply Antipest, Fir-tree oil, or some other 
good commercial insecticide of this nature. The insects are 
most abundant on the under surface of the leaves, and all 
applications should be carefully and forcibly directed to these 
parts. The plants should be sprayed once or twice a week, and 
the foliage of some should be washed or syringed an hour or 
two after the treatment, to prevent injury from the insecticide. 

Red Spider {Tetranychus telarius, Linn.). — Description. The 
red spider is a true mite, and not a spider. It has received the 
name from the fact that it spins a web, and covers the leaves 
and even whole plants with an envelope of irregularly but 
thickly scattered silken threads. It sucks the juices of the 
host-plants, preferring the more tender green parts for the 
scene of operations, although older foliage does not escape its 
ravages. The red spider causes the color of the leaf to change 
from green to a grayish-white, which shows very plainly uj)on 
most plants. This whitening of the upper surface of the 
foliage is a certain indication of the presence of a sucking in- 
sect, and generally this insect proves to be either the red spider, 
the mite, or thrips. The last, however, does not form a web. 
Such discoloration should be immediately investigated, and if 
either of the first are present, the careful gardener will remove 
the parts and take precautions to destroy any insects which 
may escape this process. 

Treatment. The red spider flourishes in a dry atmosphere 
and in bright, sunny places ; shade and moisture are unfav^or- 
able to its development. Here, then, lies the secret of its cheap 
and successful destruction. Copious spraying of the affected 
parts with clear water, and the maintenance of a moist atmos- 
phere, will soon rid a house of this insect ; in case such a course 



Greenhouse, Holhjhock. 311 

is injurious to the plants grown, an occasional wetting and the 
removal of infested leaves will be sufficient to subdue them. 

Insecticides which kill by contact uiay also be used success- 
fully, but they are not generally necessary. The fumes of 
sulphur, produced as described on page 175, are also said to 
have a beneficial action in the destruction of the red spider, 
as well as of the mite. 

Snail; Slug. — Description. The foliage of plants grown in 
moist situations under glass is frequently riddled or entirely 
devoured by snails. Tn dryer places so much harm is not done. 
These animals feed mostly in the night, concealing themselves 
under boards or other objects, or in crevices which are dark. 
They feed upon tender vegetation of nearly all kinds, and may 
cause irreparable damage to young seedlings or cuttings in a 
single uight. 

Treatment. Large numbers of snails may be caught by ex- 
amining the houses with a light after dark. They may also be 
trapped by placing pieces of turnip, cabbage, or other vegetable 
matter about the houses in such a manner that hiding-places 
may be formed. The creatures congregate under the bait, and 
often large numbers are caught in this manner. Salt, and also 
lime, are said to be distasteful to them. 

HOLLYHOCK. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Rust (Puccinia Malvacearum, Mont.). — Description. During 
]\ray and June the stems and leaves of the hollyhock may 
become discolored by small spots which at first are yellow, l>ut 
later they become brown. These diseased parts are due to the 
presence of the rust fungus, a parasite which may develop so 
vigorously and abundantly that the leaves of the host-plant 
become dry and dead, as if scorched. The plants may be 
entirely prevented from blossoming, and unless measures are 
taken to check the disease, hollyhocks may be forced from cul- 
tivation, as has occurred in some parts of Europe. 

Treatment. Hollyhock rust may be practically prevented by 
spraying the foliage with some good fungicide as soon as the 
leaves appear in the spring. The applications should be re- 
peated frequently enough to keep the young growths covered. 



312 The Spraying of Plants. 

Insect Enemies. 

'QollyYiock-hug {Or thotylus delicatus,\]\\\.^. — Description. These 
bugs, which are bright green in color, sometimes attack holly- 
hocks early in the season so vigorously that the plants wilt, and 
occasionally die. The insects suck the juices of the plants, and 
are undoubtedly their worst insect enemy. 

Treatment. Kerosene emulsion has been successfully used 
against the pest, and if the applications are commenced as 
soon as the bugs are seen, no serious damage should result. 



MAPLE. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Spot (P/tijllosticta Acericola, C. & E.). — Dej<cript'wn. The 
fungus attacks the foliage of both large and small trees, destroy- 
ing the green coloring matter. It appears in spring, causing 
the formation of dark brown areas which enlarge very rapidly. 
Later the parts first affected assume a lighter, or even a gray 
color, although there is much variation in the appearance of 
the disease upon different species of maples. The patches 
may finally extend over the entire leaf. 

Treatment. Large trees are treated with difficulty, but nurs- 
ery stock may be easily reached. Plants should be sprayed 
thoroughly with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the leaves 
appear in spring, and new treatments should be made so that 
the young growths shall at all times be protected. Destroy- 
ing affected leaves may assist in checking the disease upon the 
shade trees, but spraying them by means of proper machinery 
will prove most satisfactory. 

Insect Enemies. 

Green-striped Maple-worm (Anisota ruhicunda, Fabr.). — 
Description. The adult insect is a moth of a yellowish-white 
color, the shade varying in different parts of the country. The 
spread of the wings is about two and one-fourth inches. The 
insect passes the winter in the pupal state, and in spring, when 
the adult moths appear, large numbers of eggs are laid, gener- 
ally in clusters on the under side of the leaves. The larvae are 
striped longitudinally with alternating bands of light and dark 



3IapJe. 313 

green, while at the posterior extremity there project two black 
horns, each about a quarter of an inch in length. The larva) 
feed upon the foliage of the trees, being particularly injurious 
in the western states, where shade trees are in certain years 
entirely defoliated. There are two or three broods, depending 
upon the latitude. 

Treatment. The best and most effective remedy is to spray 
the trees with Paris green or some similar poison, whenever such 
a course is practicable. In other cases, the larvjie may be caught 
in trenches about a foot deep that are dug in concentric circles 
about the bases of the trees. The larvae wander from the tree 
to pupate, and they will collect in the trenches, where they may 
be easily destroyed. 

Tussock Moths {Orgyia, sp.). — Description. There are several 
species of tussock moths which resemble each other very 
closely. The caterpillars when grown are about an inch in 
length ; the body is j^ellow in color, and generally is marked 
by a narrow, dark band extending along the back. The sides 
of the body may be similarly marked. Upon the back, just 
forward of the center, may be found four thick tufts of yellow- 
ish hair, while from the second segment of the body tliere 
extend two long black plumes. A single plume extends back- 
ward from the rear of the body. The larvae hatch during May 
from eggs which were laid upon the silken cocoons by the 
female during the preceding fall. In about five weeks the 
larv?e begin to pupate, the adults appearing a week latei*. 
Only the males possess wings; these expand nearly an inch 
and a half. The ground color is ashy gray, luit several dark 
lines cross the fore wings. As a rule tliere are two broods. 

Treatment. These insects cause much injury to shade trees, 
and if imchecked they gradually increase in numbers so tliat 
the trees are each year defoliated. The most practical remedy 
appears to be to collect the cocoons while the trees are dormant. 
As the eggs are laid upon the surface of the cocoons tliey may 
be easily discovered. The cocoons may be found upon the 
branches and trunks of infested trees, and also upon fences 
and in sheltered spots in the neighborhood. The larva} are 
also easily killed by the arsenites, although the application of 
the latter is not always practicable. 



314 The Spraying of Plants. 

MIGNONETTE. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Leaf Blight; Mignonette Disease (Cercospom Resedce, 
Feckl.). — Description. "The disease first appears either as 
minute pale spots with brownish or yellowish borders, — 
little sunken areas in the succulent tissue of the leaf, — or 
as reddish discolorations which spread over the leaf and 
finally develop into these pale spots or patches. The spots 
when young are simply dead portions, uniformly brown 
throughout ; but as they become older and larger, little black 
specks appear in their centers, giving a somewhat granular 
cast. The disease spreads very rapidly over the leaves, the 
dead areas grow larger and more irregular in shape, the 
leaves commence to curl, wither, and hang limply against 
the stems." ^ 

Treatment. Early and i"epeated sprayings of the young- 
plants with the Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal carbonate of 
copper will almost entirely prevent the disease. 

MOSSES AND LICHENS. 

It is very rare that these growths injure the cultivated plants 
upon which they are found. But they often lend an unkempt 
air to a plantation, and for this reason, if for no other, their 
removal appears desirable. Bordeaux mixture has frequently 
cleaned fruit trees of these plants, and its general use for this 
purpose may be recommended. Alkaline washes have a similar 
action. Spanish moss, which in the Southern States appears to 
have an injurious action upon certain trees, may be destroyed 
by spraying the tree with a wash composed of eight cans of con- 
centrated lye dissolved in fifty gallons of water. It is possi- 
ble that strong fungicides would exert a similar influence. 

MUSKMELON. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Powdery Mildew ; Cucumber Mildew (Plasmopara Cuhensis, B. 
& C). — Description. This disease has been reported as having 

1 FaircWld, A}m. Rept. U. S. Com. of Agric. 18S9, 429. 



3fusJcmelon.f Oats. 315 

been found upon squashes, melons, cucumbers, and pumpkins, in 
some cases inflicting serious damage. It bears a certain resem- 
blance to the downy mildew of grapes in its external charac- 
ters. Affected parts of the leaves turn yellow, then brown, 
while underneath these parts may be found the frost-like 
patches so characteristic of the downy mildews. But with the 
cucumber mildew the growth changes to a color closely 
approaching violet. The dead leaf tissue soon becomes 
broken, and the leaf is often entirely destroyed. 

Treatment. The application of a good fungicide, as already 
described under downy mildew of the grape, should protect the 
vines from the fungus. 

Insect Enemies. 
See under Cucumber. 



OATS. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Loose Smut (Ustilar/o Avenm, Jensen). — Description. This 
fungus causes the grains, and generally the husks as well, 
to be transformed into a black mass in which all the normal 
tissue of the oat plant has disappeared. This powdery mass 
consists of spores. These appear when the crop is lieading, 
and they mature at blossoming time. When the crop is 
harvested the spores have nearly all been blown away, leaving 
a naked stalk. 

Treatment.'^ "It has been found that the infection of the 
plant takes place when the seed is germinating and from spores 
adhering to the seed when planted. If these adhering spores 
can be killed, a crop wholly free from smut can be obtained.^ 

" The Jensen or liot-icaler treafnipntfor oat and wheat smut. — This 
method, discovered by J. L. Jensen, of Denmark, in 1887, con- 
sists in immersing the seed which is supposed to be infected 
with smut for a few minutes in scalding water. The tempera- 
ture must be such as to kill the smut spores, and the immersion 

1 The remedies here mentioned have been taken from Farmers" Bittl. Xo. 5. of 
the U. S. Dept. of Agric. IMi\ of Veg. Path. 

2 " There is some good evidence to show that fresh manure of herbivorous animals 
containing smut spores may, if applied at the time of planting, infect the young 
plants. It is hardly necessary to mention this manner of infection, since almost no 
American farmers manure grain fields in this manner. There is no danger in using 
well-rotted manure,'" 



316 The Spraying of Plants. 

must not be prolonged so that the heat would injure the germi- 
native power of the seed. If the water is at a temperature 
of 132^° F., the spores will be killed, and yet the immersion, 
if not continued beyond fifteen minutes, will not in the least 
injure the seed. The temperature must be allowed to vary but 
little from 132 1°, in no case rising higher than 135°, or falling 
below 130°. To insure these conditions when treating large 
quantities of seed, the following suggestions are offered : 

" Provide two large vessels — as two kettles over a fire, or 
boilers on a cook-stove, the first containing warm water (say 
110° to 130°), the second containing scalding water (132^°). 

" The first is for the purpose of warming the seed preparatory 
to dipping it into the second. Unless this precaution is taken 
it will be difficult to keep the water in the second vessel at a 
proper temperature. 

" The seed which is to be treated must be placed, a half-bushel 
or more at a time, in a closed vessel that will allow free entrance 
and exit of water on all sides. For this purpose a bushel basket 
made of heavy wire could be used, within which spread wire net- 
ting, say twelve meshes to the inch, or an iron frame could be 
made at a trifling cost, over which the wire netting could be 
stretched. This would allow the water to pass freely and yet 
prevent the passage of the seed. A sack made of loosely woven 
material (as gunny sack) could perhaps be used instead of the 
wire basket. A perforated tin vessel is in some respects prefer- 
able to any of the above. 

" Now dip the basket of seed in the first vessel ; after a 
moment lift it ; and, when the water has for the most part 
escaped, plunge it into the water again, repeating the operation 
several times. The object of the lifting and plunging, to which 
should be added also a rotary motion, is to bring every grain 
in contact with the hot water. Less than a minute is required 
for this preparatory treatment, after which plunge the basket 
of seed into the second vessel. If the thermometer indicates 
that the temperature of the water is falling, pour in hot water 
until it is elevated to 132^°. If it should rise higher than 132°, 
add small quantities of cold water. This will doubtless be the 
most simple method of keeping the proper temperature and 
requires only the addition of two small vessels, one for cold 
and one for boiling water. 



Oats. 317 

" Steam, conducted into the second vessel by a pipe provided 
with a stopcock, answers even better, both for heating the 
water and elevating the temperature from time to time. 

" The basket of seed should, very shortly after its immer- 
sion, be lifted and then plunged and agitated in the manner 
described above ; and the operation should be repeated eight 
or ten times during the immersion, which shoukl l)e continned 
fifteen minutes. In this M^ay every portion of the seed will 
be subjected to the action of the scalding water. Immediately 
after its removal dash cold water over it or plunge it into a 
vessel of cold water and then spread out to dry. Another por- 
tion can be treated similarly, and so on until all the seed has 
been disinfected. Before tiioronghly dry the seed can be 
sown ; but it may be thoroughly dried and stored if desired. 

" The important precautions to be taken are as follows : 
(1) Maintain the proper temperature of the water (132|'^ F.), in 
no case allowing it to rise higher than 135° or to fall below 
130°. This will not be difficult to do if a reliable thermometer 
is used and hot or cold water be dipped into the vessel as 
the falling or rising temperature demands. Immersion fifteen 
minutes Avill not then injure the seed. (2) See that the volume 
of scalding water is much greater (at least six or eigiit times) 
than that of the seed treated at any one time. (3) Never fill 
the basket or sack containing the seed entirely full, but always 
leave room for the grain to move about freely. (-4) Leave the 
seed in the second vessel of wdiXer fifteen minutes. 

'■'The hot-water treatment for oats. — The foregoing method is 
applicable to both wheat and oats. With oats the following- 
slight modifications are probably advantageous : (1) Have the 
water in the second vessel 143.]° F. and immerse the seed five 
minutes, cooling with cold water afterwards. Where large 
amounts of seed are to be treated this will prove the most 
speedy form of the treatment, but great care must be taken to 
see that every grain is thoroughly wetted. (2) Have the water 
in the second vessel at 132^° F. ; immerse the seed ten minutes 
and do not cool with cold water, but spread out at once to dry. 
This last is no doubt the best form of the Jensen treatment for 
oats, since it requires a shorter time than the regular method 
and the warmth of the grain aids it materially in drying. 
Moreover, experiments have shown that seed treated in this 



318 Tlie Spraying of Plants. 

way yields the most grain and straw. Neither of these modifi- 
cations can be recommended for wheat without more data than 
we now possess. 

^^ Potassium sulphide treatment for oats. — In this treatment the 
seed is left twenty-four hours in a one-half per cent solution 
of potassium sulphide. The published experiments seem to 
show that a weak solution of potassium sulphide is nearly as 
good as the hot water. Tlie potassium sulphide is cheapest in 
the ' fused ' condition, in which form it costs about twenty-five 
cents a pound. One pound of the sulphide should be dissolved 
in twenty-four gallons of water. Place the seed in a wooden 
vessel and pour on the solution till the seed is covered several 
inches deep. Stir the solution before pouring it on the grain 
and thoroughly mix the seed several times before taking it out 
of the solution. The oats should stand in the solution twenty- 
four hours, after which they may be spread out to dry. The 
solution gradually loses its strength and hence cannot be used 
more than three or four times without being renewed. 

"It will probably be best to sow the seed as soon as possible 
and before it becomes thoroughly dry. 

" Soaking the seed twelve hours in a solution of twice the 
strength will no doubt prove effectual. 

" Copper sulphate treatment for icheat. — This consists in im- 
mersing the seed in a solution made by dissolving one pound 
of commercial copper sulphate in twenty-four gallons of water 
for twelve hours and then putting the seed for five or ten 
minutes into lime water made by slaking one pound of good 
lime in ten gallons of water. 

" These treatments have all been tried and have proved effec- 
tive. Probably the hot water is the best for general use. In 
some parts of the country, seed wheat is treated in strong solu- 
tions of copper sulphate and no lime is used. This practice is 
much inferior, since it injures the seed, while those given here 
prevent the smut completely and at the same time do not injure 
the seed if carefully followed. In all forms of seed treatment 
care should be taken to spread the grain out to dry at once, and 
by frequent stirring prevent its spoiling. The treated seed 
should be handled only with clean tools and should be put in 
sacks disinfected by boiling fifteen minutes. If these precau- 
tions are not taken the seed may be infected again after treat- 



OaU^ Onion. 319 

ment, especially in case of stinking smut of wheat. If the seed 
is to be sown broadcast it will not have to be so dry as if it is 
to be drilled. The seed may be treated with hot water a con- 
siderable time before planting if dried carefully, but it is prob- 
ably better to treat just before planting." 

Rusts. — The various rusts which attack oats, wheat, and 
barley have not been successfully treated by the use of fun- 
gicides. 

ONION. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew ; Rust {Peronospora Schleideniana, Unger). — Descrip- 
tion. Seed onions, especially when grown on low ground, ap- 
pear to be particularly affected by this disease. The first 
appearance of the trouble is the formation upon the onion tops 
of a grayish velvety coating. The leaf wilts, and turns yellow. 
This occurs about the time that the onions begin to bottom. 
The fungus passes the winter by means of spores which are 
developed within the tissue of the host-plant. 

Treatment. Proper applications of the Bordeaux mixture, or 
of some other fungicide, if made early in the season and re- 
peated at intervals of two weeks, should keep the disease in 
check. All affected onions should be destroyed. 

Smut (Urocystis Cepulce, Frost). — Description. The disease 
is more severe upon dry land, as the onions appear to be less 
able to outgrow it. The first leaves of the seedlings are 
attacked, dark spots scattered along their surfaces showing the 
presence of the fungus. Such plants generally die before the 
third leaf is formed. When the disease appears upon older 
plants the bulbs show dark ridges extending up and down 
their sides, even to the leaves. These ridges are mainly com- 
posed of a sooty powder consisting of the spores of the fungus. 
It has been estimated that a single large onion may mature 
a cubic inch of smut in a single season. The soil soon becomes 
filled with the germs of the disease, and it is almost impossible 
to grow a sound crop. 

Treatment. Affected soil sliould not be planted to seed 
onions. It appears probable that by transplanting onions the 
disease may be largely avoided, since it enters the young onions 
before they appear above ground. One ounce of a mixture of 



320 



The Spraying of Plants. 



equal parts of sulphur and lime to every fifty feet of drill has 
been recommended as a preventive. 

Insect Enemies. 

Maggot (PJwrhia Cejjarum, Meigen). — Description. This in- 
sect closely resembles the Cabbage Root-maggot in appear- 
ance, and the methods of treatment are practically the same for 
the two insects. See under Cabbage. 




Fig. 62. — Orange scab. 



ORANGE. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Orange leaves 



Scab (Cladosporium sp.). — Description 
affected vs^ith the scab first show warty-like elevations, mostly 
on the under surface of the leaves (Fig. 62). These excrescences 
also appear upon the young shoots. Tliey are at first light-col- 
ored, but later the tops turn nearly black. Growing leaves and 
shoots are distorted by the parasite, and they finally become 
yellow and worthless. 



Orange. 321 

Leaf Spot {Colletotrichum cit/ustion , Ellis). — Description. 
Leaf spot attacks both wild and sweet oranges. It first pro- 
duces on the leaves light green spots which are ahout an eighth 
of an inch in diameter. These enlarge till they are fully an 
inch across, the older portions becoming brown and studded 
with small black dots. This disease is not as j^et very serious. 

Treatment. The two diseases here mentioned have appar- 
ently not been thoroughly treated, so that all recommendations 
must be founded upon the experiences gained in treating other 
plants. The copper compounds will probably prove most effi- 
cient in controlling the diseases, the applications being com- 
menced a week or two before the troubles first appear. 

Insect Enemies. 

Leaf Notcher (Artipus Floridanus, Horn). — Description. The 
adult is a small insect about a quarter of an inch long; it is of a 
metallic greenish-blue color. It feeds upon the foliage of the 
trees, beginning at the edges of the leaves. 

Treatment. Jarring the trees has been recommended, and 
it seems probable that applications of the arsenites would prove 
effectual in destroying the pests. 

Mealy-wing (Alet/roiles Citri). — Description. These minute 
white flies frequently appear in such numbers upon orange 
foliage that the tree may be considerably weakened by them. 
Related forms are common in northern greenhouses, and 
plants are often seriously injured by their work. In the South 
the insects generally pass the winter in the larval stage. In 
early spring they pupate, and the adults appear during ]\Iarch 
and April. Eggs are laid in abundance on the under side of 
the leaves. They soon hatch, and the larv<T, on account of their 
transparency, maybe present in swarms, and still pass unnoticed. 
They suck the juices from the leaves, and secrete a honey-dew 
upon which a dark fungus soon grows. There are three gener- 
ations each year in the South. 

Treatment. The insects do not yield readily to treatments of 
kerosene emulsion, but the resin wash smothers the immature 
forms. Under glass, other species are easily destroyed by 
tobacco smoke. 

Mite ; Leaf-mite ; Spider ; California Spider ; Red-spotted 
Mite; Red Spider {Tctran/jchus (j-maculatus, Kiley). — JJcscrip- 

Y 



322 The Spraying of Plants. 

tion. The insect is pale green in color, and is marked above by 
six small dark spots. It feeds upon the juices of the plant, 
and increases with such rapidity that, unless checked, the foli- 
age soon becomes ruined. Ten days is the estimated time for 
maturing the insect from the egg when conditions are favorable. 
The name " spider " has been ajDplied to the mite on account of 
its habit of spinning a fine thread which often entirely covers 
the infested parts. 

Treatment. The pest is held in check by abundant rains, 
showing that it does not relish water any more than its relative, 
the red spider of greenhouses. It is also easily destroyed by 
kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, and if the trees are thoroughly 
and forcibly sprayed with clear water, it will have a decided 
effect in clearing the foliage of the insect. 

Rust-mite. — The rusty appearance of oranges is caused by the 
work of a minute yellow animal, a true mite. It lives upon the 
essential oil which is found in all parts of the orange tree, suck- 
ing it out by means of a beak. On the fruit this causes the 
familiar browning of the orange. 

Treatment. As the eggs, molting young, and adults are found 
upon the trees at all seasons of the year, no definite direction 
can be given which will apply to every district. All applica- 
tions should be repeated at intervals of a week or ten days, so 
that the young may be destroyed before they mature. Spraying 
the trees with sulphur suspended in water is one of the best 
remedies, as the fumes are deadly to the insects. Whale-oil 
soap solution, made by dissolving one pound of the soap in ten 
gallons of water, is also effectual.^ 

Glover's Scale ; Long Scale ; Oystershell Scale (Mytilaspls 
Gloverii, Packard). — Description. The eggs of this insect hatch 
early in spring, the young larvse being yellowish purple in color. 
These almost immediately begin to secrete a cotton-like covering 
which extends over the entire body in about a week. The first 
molt takes place about three weeks after the eggs hatch, and 
the covering of the insects from that time on is penetrated with 
difficulty by insecticides. Tliere are three periods when the 
newdy hatched scales are most abundant ; in March, in June and 
July, and in September or October, and each generation soon 

1 For detailed experimeuts, made by II. G. Hubbard, see Ann. He]:). U. S. Com. 
of Agric. 18S4, 361. 



Orange. 323 

covers itself witli the long, yellowish or dark brown scale which 
may be found upon the leaves and brandies of the orange. 

Treatment. The trees should l)e sprayed with resin washes, 
kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap whenever the young insects 
are seen. It is especially important that this should occur dur- 
ing the three periods above mentioned, for then the greatest 
numbers can be destroyed. The old scales cannot be penetrated 
by any insecticide which does not injure the foliage. 

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus pernicio.'ius, Comstock). — Descrip- 
tion. This scale insect is undoubtedly the most serious to fruit 
trees of any with which the horticulturist has to deal. It is 
probably a native of Chili, but w^as imported into California, 
and from there it has spread to the eastern states. It is now 
very irregularly scattered throughout the East and has already 
shown that it is capable of destroying not only the orange, but 
also most of our other fruit trees. 

During the winter the San Jose scale is only about one-half 
grown, the scale being less than a sixteenth of an inch in diam- 
eter. It is nearly circular, quite flat, but the center has a slight 
elevation. This is of a dark color, while the remainder of the 
scale is gray. These immature forms begin sucking the juice 
of the plant as soon as growth commences in the spring. They 
complete their growth in about four weeks, and then lay their 
eggs under the scale. Early in June, in the latitude of Xew 
York, the young insects begin to crawl out from under the old 
scale. In two or three days they settle down, and begin the 
secretion of a scale which resembles that of the parent form. 
Before fixing themselves they are active, and so minute that 
their small yellow bodies can scarcely be seen without the aid 
of a glass. 

From the time of the appearance of the first generation in 
spring, the young insects can be seen almost continually through- 
out the summer months, and until the arrival of cold weather in 
the fall. The number of generations which appear in a season 
has not yet been ascertained. 

Treatment. The most effectual method of ridding plants of 
this pest is by treating them, while dormant, with hydrocyanic- 
acid gas. With grown trees, the operation of covering an 
entire plant with an air-tight tent is a difficult process, al- 
though it has been done successfully in the orange groves of 



324 The Spraying of Plants. 

California. Nursery stock may, however, be treated very 
easily in this manner, and Avhen the operation is finished there 
need be no doubt that all the insects are destroyed. In California 
the resin washes have been used with success, care being taken 
that all parts of the tree are reached by the material. In the 
eastern states these washes have not proved to be equally 
effective, a solution of two pounds of whale-oil soap to a gallon 
of water having given the best results. Kerosene emulsion 
may probably be successfully used if made according to the 
Hubbard-Riley formula, and diluted five times. Caustic soda 
and caustic potash should also give good results if applied 
during the winter months. 

During the summer, if kerosene emulsion is persistently used, 
so that at least the majority of the young are killed, the insects 
may be gradually reduced in numbers, although the fight will 
prove a hard one. Continued watching and thorough spraying 
must in time exterminate the scale in an orchard. 



pa:n^sy. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew; Rust (Perono.ywra Vioke, DeBary). — Description. 
Diseased leaves show the presence of this fungus by turning 
brown at the affected places. The disease as yet does not 
appear to be well understood. 

Treatment. Proper culture and the application of fungicides 
are to be recommended. 

PARSLEY. 

Insect Enemies. 

Parsley-worm; Celery-caterpillar (Papilio Asferias, Cramer). 
— Description. The mature butterfly is black, but it has rows 
of yellow and blue spots upon the wings. These expand nearly 
four inches, and the adult is one of the most handsome of our 
summer butterflies. The eggs are laid upon the leaves of 
parsley, parsnip, celery, carrot, and many related plants. The 
young caterpillar, appearing in June, is at first black, but as 
it increases in size the color becomes greenish. About the 
middle of July, when full grown, the larva is about an inch 



Parslef/, Pea. 325 

and a half long, the ground color being pale green, but the 
sides of the body are marked with a series of yellow and black 
markings. When disturbed it projects two yellow horns from 
the back of the head; these emit a disagreeable odor, and 
doubtless serve as organs of defense. It soon seeks a sheltered 
spot, and there spins its cocoon. In about two weeks the adult 
insect again appears. Eggs are laid, and the larvae become full 
grown and pupate late in September or early in October. The 
winter is i:)assed in this condition, the mature insect appearing 
the following spring. 

Treatment. These insects are rarely present in sufficient 
numbers to cause much injury. If their destruction is at- 
tempted, the arsenites will be found very efficient, but they 
should be applied only to those plants whose foliage is not 
used. Hellebore, or pyrethrum, is safer and almost as effective, 
and these materials should l^e applied to celery, parsley, and 
other plants whose treated parts are used as food. 



PARSNIP. 

Insect Enemies. 

Parsley-worm. See under Parsley. 

Web-worm {Depressaria heracUana^ De Geer.) — Description. 
The moths probably hibernate during the winter, laying their 
eggs early in spring. The larv?e appear in June. They feed 
upon tiie green parts of the parsnip, and protect themselves by 
means of a web. The flower cluster is particularly affected. 
This insect is comparatively rare. 

Treatment. One or two applications of an arsenite should be 
sufficient to protect the plants, since the insect a]ipears to have 
but one brood each year. The treatments should be made as 
soon as the larvae are seen in the spring. The insects pupate in 
the stems of the parsnip, and the destruction of these stems 
late in July would materially reduce the number of the insects. 



PEA. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew (Eri/siphe Marfii, Lev.). — Defcriplion. This disease 
generally appears late in summer, or during the autumn months. 



326 The Spraying of Plants. 

It covers the foliage with a white, downy layer, which almost 
entirely obscures the green color of the leaves and stems. 
Later, small black dots appear, these being the fruiting bodies 
of the fungus. 

Treatment. The disease could undoubtedly be easily checked 
by means of the copper sprays ; but the foliage of these plants 
is of such a character that liquids do not readily adhere. Soap 
will assist in overcoming this difficulty if it is added to the 
liquids. Another line of treatment which might be followed 
by good results is to apply powders to the vines while they 
are wet with dew. Fostite should prove of value for this pur- 
pose. 

Rust. — This is the same disease which has been discussed 
under Bean. It is rarely serious. 

Insect Enemies. 

Weevil; Pea-bug {Bruchus Pisi,\jm\\.). — Description. The 
adult is a dirty-black beetle having white markings on the wing 
covers, and a T-shaped mark of the same color at the extremity 
of the abdomen. The insect is scarcely three-sixteenths of an 
inch long. The winter is generally passed in the adult stage, 
the beetles mostly appearing in the spring. Eggs are laid while 
the young pods are forming, and the larvae enter the growing 
peas, upon which they feed, rarely injuring the germ, how- 
ever, although the seed is considerably weakened. The insects 
pupate within the peas, and soon afterward the adult appears, 
although it does not leave the peas, as a rule, until the following 
spring. 

Treatment. No practicable method has yet been found by 
means of which the beetle can be prevented from laying its 
eggs in the young pods. The practice commonly followed is to 
treat the peas, after harvesting, with the bisulphide of carbon. 
Two or three treatments at intervals of three or four weeks 
will be found sufficient to exterminate the pest. Another 
method of destroying the insects is to subject the peas to a 
temperature of 145° F. for about an hour. If this is done as 
soon as the peas are ripe, the larvae, which are then practically 
grown, will succumb, and the germinating qualities of the seed 
will not be injured. The bean-weevil may be successfully 
treated in the same manner. 



Peach. 



327 



PEACH. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Black Spot (Clnrloi<poriun> rarpopJdIwn, Thm.). — Description. 
This surface f\ingus is generally more severe upon late varie- 
ties, HilPs Chili being especially susceptible to its attack. Ft 
forms small dusky-brown or black spots upon the side of the 
fruit (Fig. Go), and although the spots scarcely exceed one- 




FiG. 63. — Black spot of peach. 

eighth of an inch in diameter, when several run together, large 
areas of the peach may be affected (Figs. G4, (55). In such 
cases, all growth of the diseased portion is stopped, and fre- 
quently the flesh cracks down to the pit. As a rule, the disease 
is not very troublesome. 

Treatment. Spray the trees with the Bordeaux mixture, be- 
ginning the treatments early in July. The mixture should not 
be made stronger than one pound copper sulphate to ten gallons 
of the liquid, and an abundance of lime shoidd be added, other- 



328 



The Spraying of Plants. 



wise the foliage may be seriously injured. Two applications 
may be required after the first of August. For these, a clear 
fungicide, such as the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, should 
be used, but there is again danger of burning the foliage. For 
this reason, the solution should not be made stronger than an 
ounce to twelve gallons of water. Some injury may result even 
from this dilute preparation, but it will be so slight that no 
serious loss need be feared. Powders have proved unsatisfac- 
tory in the treatment of peaches, as tlie leaves are so smooth 
that but little of the material adheres to them.^ 



?>7- 





Fig. 64. — Frnit sevei-ely attacked by- 
black spot. 



Fig. G5. — Same as Fig. 64, 
another view. 



Brown Rot ; Fruit Rot ; Twig Blight {Monilia fructigena, 
Pers.). — Description. Brown rot is probably the most serious 
fungous disease Mdtli which peach growers are obliged to con- 

1 Peach trees should at all times be treated cautiously. At a meeting of the 
A. A. A. S. held at Springfield, Mass., Aug. 27, 1S95, "P. H. Eolfs read a paper 
upon ' Some unexpected results from spraying peach orchards.' He said : In spray- 
ing peach orchards with the resin Avash advised by the division of entomology, it 
was found that the insecticide was excellent when used during dry weather. When 
the wash was used late in the year and early in the spring, it was liable to destroy 
the fruit buds. In no case did the insecticide att'ect the leaf buds. The experiments 
show that the insecticide advised for winter use should not be used in winter in 
Florida, but may be used in September and October." — Springfleld Repuhlican, 
Aug. 28, 1895, 4. See, also, Bull, xviii., Cornell Exp. 8la. 



Peach. 329 

tend. The disease is more severe upon early varieties, and in 
the middle Atlantic states the fungus is extremely prevalent 
and serious. It causes the rotting of the fruit about the time 
the period of ripening begins. It increases rapidly in ^varm, 
moist weather, and peaches which touch each other are among 
the first to suffer from the disease. This is mainly due to the 
fact that a certain amount of moisture is retained at the point 
of contact, and with such favorable conditions the fungus 
easily succeeds in gaining an entrance. Cherries and plums 
also suffer from the disease, and in the same manner; the 
sweet, soft-fleshed varieties of cherries are especially susceptible. 
The affected fruit turns brown and appears as if decayed ; it 
then becomes covered with an ash-colored coating which consists 
of myriads of spores, each one capable of si^reading the disease. 
The fungus also attacks the small twigs, causing their death 
(Fig. 66). It is no uncommon sight to see dried peaches, 
plums, or cherries attached to the branches upon which they 
grew, the latter having been destroyed by the disease as well 
as the fruit. It also appears certain that the blossoms may be 
affected and ruined, so that no fruit will set. This disease, 
therefore, should be closely watched and thoroughly controlled. 

Treatment. The treatment here described applies practically 
also to plums ; but cherries cannot be treated so often, as the 
fruit matures earlier. (1) The first application should bi- 
made, in badly infested districts, just before the buds begin to 
swell ; at this time spray with a simple solution of copper 
sulphate, using one pound to twenty-five gallons of water. 
(2) While the buds are swelling, spray with the Bordeaux mix- 
ture. ('3) Repeat the second when the fruit has set. (4) When 
the fruit is grown, spray with the ammoniacal carbonate of cop- 
per, using one ounce of copper carbonate to twelve gallons of 
water. (5) Repeat the fourth application at intervals of six or 
eight, days until the fruit is harvested. It is only in very few 
localities that such measures need be adopted ; in tlie ma jurity 
of cases the third and the fifth recommendations will suffice. 

Curl; Leaf Curl ; Frenching (Exoascus defoniKnis, Ynckl.) . — 
J)cscri/)fion. The mime *-curl" has been given to this disease 
on account of the ai)[)earance of the affected leaves. As soon as 
the first leaves have become grown, they freiiuently show a 
curled or puckered appearance (Fig. 67) ; the ridges nuiy 



330 



The Spraying of Plants. 




Fig. 66. — Brown rot of peaches. 

extend across the leaves or in a longitudinal direction. They 
ap-pear as if puffed up, and the normal green color is replaced 
by shades of yellow or red. Such foliage generally falls from 
the trees before July, when another set of leaves is produced. 
The mycelium of the fungus appears to live through the winter 



Peach. 



331 



upon the buds and twigs, for when buds are taken from dis- 
eased trees and inserted in nursery stock the resulting shoots 
generally show the dis- ^^^ 

ease, although there ,-^^=h^^. 

was no apparent infec- 
tion when the budding 
was performed. 

Treatment. Some 
think to have con- 
trolled the disease by 
spraying thoroughly 
with the copper sul- 
phate solution before 
the buds break, and 
following this, after 
the trees have blos- 
somed, with applica- 
tions of the Bordeaux 
mixture at intervals of 
about two weeks until 
July first. Burning af- 
fected leaves and giv- 
ing good cultivation 
may also decrease the 
severity of the trouble. 

Leaf Rust. See under Plum. 

Mildew (Podosphcera Oxi/canthce, De- 
nary). — Description. Early in the sea- 
son, before the peaches are one-half 
grown, they are occasionally attacked by 
a mildew which produces white, powdery 
patches upon their surface (Fig. GS). 
These may be very snudl, or tliey may 
enlarge until they are fully half an inch 
in diameter. As the season advances 
these parts become brown and hard, some- 
times causing the peach to crack. The 
foliage is also attacked by this fungus; 
here it produces a thick cm^ering of white mycelium which 
entirely obscures the green color underneath. 




Fig. 6T. —Peach cnrl. 




Fig. 68. — Peach mildew 



332 The Spraying of Plants. 

Treatment. It is probable that the disease can be checked 
by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as soon as the 
fruit has set, and following this at intervals of two weeks by 
two treatments of one ounce of the carbonate of copper dissolved 
in ammonia and diluted with twelve gallons of water. 

Rosette. — This disease causes the growth of affected trees to 
become compressed and bunched in the form of a rosette. The 
causes as well as the remedies are uidrnown. The disease is 
found only in the southern states. It is contagious, and affected 
trees should be destroyed. 

Yellows. — Peach yellows is a disease which has so far baffled 
all researches as to its cause or the methods of curing affected 
trees. The trees first ripen their fruit prematurely, the peaches 
possessing distinct red streaks extending from the surface towards 
the pit. The following years the new growth is generally tufted, 
and branched shoots are produced from wood that is more than 
two years old. Such growths have narrow, horizontal leaves, 
which are yellowish in color. The disease is contagious, and 
affected trees should be burned as soon as the disease is dis- 
covered. ]Sro cure is known. 

Insect Enemies. 

Black Peach-aphis (Aphis Persicce-nlyer, Smith). — Descrip- 
tion. These plant lice are shining black in color, one form hav- 
ing wings, the other possessing none. They feed upon the juices 
of the trees, and may be found upon the leaves, stems, and roots. 
They reproduce in the characteristic manner of plant lice. 

Treatiaent. The insects found above ground may be de- 
stroyed by kerosene emulsion diluted fifteen or twenty times, or 
by tobacco water. Those found upon the roots are more diffi- 
cult to destro}^ Tobacco stems or dust may be dug about the 
affected parts; or the roots may be exposed, and water having 
a temperature of 130° F. poured upon them. Another remedy 
which should give excellent results is to inject bisulphide of 
carbon about the roots, using about a teaspoonful to every 
square foot of soil. The roots of young trees may be dipped 
in hot water or in kerosene emulsion before setting them in 
their permanent positions. 

Borers. See under Apple. 

Plum Curculio. See under Plum. 



Pear. 



333 



PEAR. 



Fungous Diseases. 



Leaf Blight; Fruit Spot (Eittomosporhnn maculatum, Lev.). — 
Description. The leaves, stems, and fruit of the pear are sul)- 




Fk:. G;>. — IVar loaf blight. 

ject to the attacks of the leaf blight fungus. Quince trees suffer 
in the same manner. Tlie disease appears as soon as the first 
leaves are developed, or, if tlie ^veather is dry, it may not cause 
any injury until midsummer. The leaves become dotted Avith 
reddisii-brown spots Avhich gradually increase in size, coalesce, 



834 The Spraying of Plants. 

and eventually destroy large areas (Fig. 69). The leaves finally 
fall to the ground, and if the fungus is very prevalent the trees 
may be entirely defoliated. Upon the stems the affected parts 
appear black and dead. The fruit first shows reddish spots 
which later turn dark (Fig. 70). If the pears are attacked 
while small, the diseased parts grow but slowly, the tissues 
become hard and corky, and the result is an irregular fruit, 
generally cracked upon the dwarfed side, and more or less 
marked by isolated spots which appeared after the first seri- 
ous infection. Quinces suffer in the same manner, but the 




Fig. 70. —The fruit spot of pears. 

foliage frequently turns yellow before falling to the ground, 
and the affected fruit is mottled with black spots less than an 
eighth of an inch in diameter, when. late infections have taken 
place. This fungus is probably the most serious of those which 
work upon these fruits, but fortunately it may be controlled 
with comparative ease. 

There is a bacterial disease which is frequently mistaken for 
the leaf blight, but it is entirely distinct. It is commonly known 
as " fire blight " or " twig blight." It is very serious upon pears 
and quinces, and also frequently attacks some varieties of apples. 
It causes the foliage to turn to a uniform brown, the change 
taking place sometimes in two or three days. The leaves do not 



Pear. 336 

fall from the trees but remain upon the branches, giving tlie 
parts the appearance of having been scorched by fire. The 
bark of affected stems becomes brown and sunken. The bac- 
terium enters the tree through the blossoms and also through the 
growing tips. There is no known remedy, the only method of 
checking the malady being to cut out affected parts and to 
burn them as fast as they appear. 

Treatment. The leaf spot of pear and quince may be pre- 
vented by spraying the trees with the Bordeaux mixture as 
soon as the first leaves have developed. The application should 
be repeated at intervals of two to four weeks, more treatments 
being made during moist weather, until the first of August. 
Later treatments will rarely be required. In case they should 
appear to be necessary, the ammoniacal carbonate of copper, 
diluted as for peaches, should be applied. Other clear fungi- 
cides will answer the same purpose for the late treatments. 

Rust. See under Apple. 

Scab. See under Applk. 

Insect Enemies. 

Borers. See under Apple. 

Bud-moth. See under Apple. 

Cigar-case Bearer. See under Apple. 

Codlin-moth. See under Apple. 

Curculio. See under Plum. 

Midge {Diplosis pyrivora, Riley). — Description. The mature 
insect is a small two-winged fly or gnat. It appears in early 
spring, the winter having been passed in the pupal stage, and 
lays its eggs in the young pear blossoms even before these are 
fully opened. The eggs hatch quickly, and the larva' immedi- 
ately bore into the young fruit, which they pierce in all direc- 
tions. The fruit becomes swollen and misshapen, and eventually 
drops from the trees. Before this takes place the pears crack 
open in wet weather, and thus allow the escape of the midge 
larva?. The larvae are less than three-sixteenths of an inch in 
length; they are pale yellow in color, and have a very smooth 
skin. They enter the ground early in June and there pupate ; 
the mature insect appears the following spring. 

Treatment. The pear-midge is exceedingly difficult to control. 
It cannot be reached by insecticides while in the pears, and after 



336 



The Spraying of Plants. 



it has pupated it is also well protected. If the pears are not 
allowed to set, the larvae will be unable to develop, and the 
recommendation has therefore been made that the trees be 
sprayed while in blossom and all the fruit prevented from 
setting. This might be accomplished by using an arsenical 
spray, as white arsenic, but no experiments appear to have 
been made to settle the point. Picking the affected fruit before 
the larvae enter the ground has also been suggested, as well as 
thorough cultivation to destroy the pupae. Thorough applica- 
tion of kerosene upon the surface of the soil would also destroy 
many of the larvae before they pupate. Professor Smith has 




Fitt. 71. — Pear leaf blister. 



said that heavy fertilizing applications of kainite, if made 
early in July, will materially reduce the numbers of this insect. 
Pear Leaf Blister (Phytoptus Pyri, Scheuten). — Description. 
The animal causing the reddish blisters so commonly seen 
upon pear leaves early in the season (Fig. 71) is a true mite 
(Fig. 72). It passes the winter under the outer scales of the 
buds, and as soon as warm weather starts the trees into growth 
it abandons its Mdnter quarters and begins to feed upon the 
juices of the young foliage. The insect enters the leaves, where 
it is entirely protected from all applications of insecticides. 
The presence of this pest causes the formation of small swell- 
ings which are dull red early in the season, but later they turn 



Pear. 



337 




Fig. 72. —Mite causing pear leaf blister, greatly enlarged. 



green, and about the middle of June they appear as irregidar 
brown patches, of varying sizes. The leaves become distorted 
and unsightly, and redden up early in the fall. 

Treotment. Spray the trees in spring before the buds swell 
with the Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion, diluting with 
five to seven parts 
of water. One 
thorough applica- 
tion will practi- 
cally exterminate 
the insect. 

Psylla (Psylla 
pyrlcola, Forst.). 
— De script i o n.^ 
The eggs of this 
insect are laid 

early in spring, during warm days of April, by adults which 
hibernated dm-ing the winter. The eggs are laid in small 
crevices of the twigs ; they hatch in about two weeks, and pro- 
duce small flattened nymphs (Fig. 73), which suck the juices of 

the tree. They occasionally 
appear before the buds have 
opened, in which case they 
hide under the bud-scales or 
under the bark, and wait for 
the coming of the leaves. 
They then seek the axils of 
the leaves and move but little. 
They secrete large quantities 
of honey-dew, often being en- 
tirely covered with it. It runs 
down the stems of the tree, 
and is a favorable medium for 
the gTowth of a dark fungus 
which causes the tree to ajv 
pear as if covered with soot. 
The absence of this color is a good indication that the psylla is 
not present. The adult insect (Fig. 74) appears about a month 
after the egg hatches. It closely resembles a cicada or harvest- 

1 See Slingerland, Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta. 1S9'2, Oct. Bull. 44. 
z 




Fio. 73. — Immature form of psylla. 



338 



The Spi^aying of Plants. 



fly, but is only about a sixteenth of an inch in length. This 
winged form is extremely active and difficult to capture. 
Affected trees become much weakened ; the foliage is light 
green or yellowish, and if the tree is badly 
infested both the fruit and the foliage drop 
prematurely to the ground. 

Treatment. The best method of over- 
coming this destructive insect is to spray 
the trees with kerosene emulsion, contain- 
ing from 4 to 5 per cent of kerosene, as 
soon as the first leaves have unfolded in 
spring. The application should be made 
very thoroughly, and it should be rejieated 
once or twice at intervals of ten days or 
two weeks, if there is reason to fear that 
many insects have survived. Treatments 
made during the summer are also of value, 
but the spray must be copious, and it must be thrown Avith great 
force to destroy the adults. All applications should also be 
made soon after a rain, for then the honey-dew is mostly washed 
away, and the immature insects, or nymphs, may be reached 




Fig. 74.— Adult psylla. 




Fig. 75. — Cheriy slug upon pear leaf. 

more easily by the emulsion. Winter applications of kerosene 
emulsion as applied for plum scales have been recommended. 

Slug. — The shiny dark-colored slug, which is so frequently 
seen upon pear foliage (Fig. 75), is identical with the one found 
upon cherry foliage. A description of the insect will be found 
under Cherry, but it will be well here to emphasize the neces- 



Pear^ l*lum. 



339 



sity of treating the pest before much rlaniage is done, 
cation should be made seasonably and thoroughly. 



Appli- 



See Sycamore. 
FuxGors Diseases. 



PLANE-TREE. 
PLUM. 



Brown Rot. See under Peach. 

Leaf Blight; Shot-hole Fungus (Cylliulrosporiiim Padi ; Sep- 
torla cerashia, Peck). — Description. The foliage of plums and 




Fig. 76. — Shot-hole fung-u.s of plum. 



cherries is often disfigured in early summer l)y small circular 
spots about an eighth of an inch in diameter. The spots are at 
first of a purple color, but later, as the tissue dries, the color 
changes to brown, and the affected areas become loosened and 
drop out. This causes the leaves to appear as if pierced by 
shot, as they are frequently full of these small, round lioles 
(Fig. 76). In such cases the foliage turns yelkiw, drops during 
the summer, and the trees are unable to mature their fruit. 
If unchecked, the fungus may cause serious losses, but fortu- 
nately the disease is easily controlled. 



340 



Tlie Spraying of Plants. 



Treatment. The trees sliould be sprayed with the Bordeaux 
mixture as soon as the leaves appear, the application being re- 
peated at intervals of two or three weeks until about the middle 
of July. Clear fungicides should be applied to cherries early 
in the season to avoid staming the fruit, and the same precau- 
tion should be ob- 
served with plums, 
although the Bor- 
deaux mixture may 
be continued longer 
with this crop. Four 
applications should 
be sufficient even in 
very bad seasons ; 
and two or three 
will generally be 
found sufficient. 

Leaf Rust {Puc- 
riiild Pruni-spi/iosdi, 
Pers. ). — Descrip- 
tion. In general 
appearance this dis- 
ease is very similar 
to the preceding. 
The affected areas 
are dull red upon 
the upper surface of 
the leaf and yellow- 
ish-brown on the 
lower surface, but 
the spots are small, 
and frequently 
cause the foliage to 
drop prematurely, 
for the plum leaf 




Fig. 77 



Black knot of plum. 

Give the same treatment as 



Treatment. 
blight. 

Plum Knot; Black Knot; Plum Wart {Plowriglitia \_Sphceria^ 
morbosa, Sacc). — Description. It is a conunon opinion that the 
black knots (Fig. 77) found so generally upon plum and sour 
cherry trees are caused by insects, but such is not the case. 



Plum. 341 

These swellings are caused by a fungus, and the insects find 
them to be good breeding-places, which explains their presence 
in many old knots. Although the fungus has long been known 
to mycologists, its life history has not yet been entirely de- 
termined; enough is known, however, to serve as a safe guide 
in the treatment of the disease. Early in spring, when gi-owth 
starts, these swellings begin to appear. At first they are yellow- 
ish in color, but later this changes to a darker shade. I)uring 
May and June a crop of spores is produced upon the surface of 
the knots, causing them to appear as if coated with a thin layer 
of velvet. This soon disappears, and then the knot becomes 
darker until winter, when it is jet black. In November and De- 
cember the surface of the knot may be seen to be thickly cov- 
ered with minute black elevations, in which the winter spores 
are borne. These are distributed during the latter part of 
winter. The spores generally gain entrance into the trees at 
the crotches of small limbs and at the junction of annual 
growths. They cause swellings which extend along the younger 
branches to a distance of four or five incites the first year. All 
the mycelium does not die during the winter, so the following 
spring the formation of new swellings may be seen at the edges 
of the old knot. In this manner the disease may live from 
year to year, or until the limb dies. 

Treatment. The general recommendation has been to cut out 
the knots and destroy them as soon as they are discovered. It 
should be done before a crop of spores is matured. If in addi- 
tion to this the trees are thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux 
mixture during the w^arm days of early spring before growth 
starts, and again when the buds are about to burst, it is proba- 
ble that the winter spores may be rendered harmless. If the 
crop of spores produced during ]\Iay and June is similarly dis- 
posed of, no infection need be feared. Consequently the trees 
should be sprayed for the third time wdth the Bordeaux mix- 
ture during the latter part of ^lay, and again about the middle 
of June. These applications must be thoroughly made, and if 
this is done the black knot fungus may be practically con- 
trolled. In case a knot appears upon a large limb, or u]»on the 
trunk of a tree where it cannot be easily removed, it should be 
painted with pure kerosene oil. This will destroy the knot and 
also the living tissue surrounding it ; care should therefore be 



342 



The Spraying of Plants. 



exercised in the application of the oil that it is not too freely 
distributed. By mixing some coloring matter with the kero- 
sene the treated parts may easily be distinguished. 

Plum Pockets; Plum Bladders (Exoascus \_Taphrina'] Pruni, 
Fuckl.). — Description. Plums are frequently attacked by this 




Fig. 78. — Plum pockets. 



fungus soon after they blossom. The affected fruit begins to 
swell (Fig. 78) until it is from one to two inches in length. At 
first the plums are very smooth, but they are yellow in color. 
Later this changes to gray, the appearance being caused by a 
thick coating of the spores of the parasite. This color is then 
replaced by dark brown or black, and towards the end of June 



Plum, 343 

the fruit falls to the ground. Tt is then nearly hollow, and rattles 
like inflated bladders. The walls of the plum are fairly thick, 
but no stone or pit exists. Wild cherries and plums are also 
attacked by other closely related fungi. The mycelium of these 
fungi is perennial, so that the disease generally appears year 
after year on the same tree. It attacks the leaves and stems as 
well as the fruit, and causes the affected parts to become swollen 
and distorted. 

Treatment. No careful work appears to have been done in 
controlling the fungi that cause plum pockets. From the fact 
that the mycelium has been found growing upon the twigs and 
extending to the young leaves and fruits, it seems probable that 
the copper compounds would prove valuable in controlling the 
disease. The trees should be sprayed when the buds begin to 
swell, and again just before the blossoms open. The disease 
may also spread by means of spores, and this would prol>ably 
necessitate applications at the time when the affected fruit is of 
a gray color. 

Powdery Mildew. See under Apple. 

Rot. See under Peach. 

Insect Enemies. 

Borers. See under Apple. 

Bud-moth. See under Apple. 

Canker-worm. See under Apple. 

Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar, Herbst). — Description. The 
plum curculio, or " little Turk," as the beetle is occasionally called, 
is the worst enemy of plum growers. The adult insect is scarcely 
a fourth of an inch in length. It is grayish-brown in color, and 
has a black hump on the center of each wing cover. The long 
snout is generally curved underneath the body. The eggs are 
laid in the young plums as soon as the blossoms fall, and beetles 
may still be present even six weeks later. By means of the 
snout a hole is bored in the plum and the egg is laid within it; 
a crescent-shaped cut is then made about the part containing 
the egg in such a manner that a small lip of the green flesh is 
formed. AVithin this li]. the egg is secure. It hatches in a few 
days, the grub immediately beginning to eat its way towards the 
center of the fruit. It feeds for about four weeks, being then 
over three-eighths of an inch in length. It is of a yellowish- 



344 The S^) raying of Plants. 

white color, the head being pale brown. When fnll grown, the 
larva leaves the plum and descends several inches into the 
ground. It there pupates, and the mature insect appears in 
the fall, or sometimes not until the following spring. There is 
but one brood each year. 

Treatment. Spraying the trees with arsenites has been recom- 
mended as an effective method of desti'oying the curculio, but 
many growers doubt the efficiency of the practice (see pp. 68, 73). 
The beetles feed some time before laying their eggs, and such 
applications are designed to kill the adults before the eggs are 
laid. The first treatment should be made as soon as the first 
leaves unfold, and before the blossoms open ; the second, when 
the blossoms have fallen ; the third, about two weeks later, 
Paris green and lime should be used, each at the rate of one 
pound to about two hundred gallons of water. 

Another method of destrojdng the curculio, and a more certain 
one, is to jar the trees early in the morning before the beetles 
are active. The insects fall readily from the trees, and may be 
caught on sheets, or in some of the machines now used for the 
purpose. When the insects are ordinarily abundant, the trees 
should be jarred every other morning, beginning the work as 
soon as the blossoms have fallen. In severe cases the trees 
must be treated daily, and some growers have repeated the 
operation again in tlie evening, as the insects were so numer- 
ous. Jarring the trees should be continued until the beetles 
are no longer caught upon the sheets ; in this manner the fruit 
will 1)6 well protected. 

Plum gouger ( Coccotorus scutellaris, Lee). — Description. This 
insect is found mostly west of the Mississippi River. It is a 
snout-beetle, and resembles the plum curculio in many respects. 
It is, however, yellowish-brown in color, and when the egg is 
laid no crescent mark is made about the point of insertion. 
The larva burrows into the pit; here it pupates, and late in 
summer or early fall the adult appears. The winter is passed 
in this stage, the eggs being laid the following spring at the 
same time as are those of the plum curculio. 

Treatment. The plum gouger is controlled in the same man- 
ner as the plum curculio. 

Plum-scale {Lecanium sp.). — Description. This scale insect 
passes the winter in an immature form. The scales are about 



Pluyn^ Potato. 345 

one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length ; they are very narrow, 
fiat, and of a brown color. About the first of April these 
minute scales move about and soon fasten themselves, gener- 
ally to the under side of the small branches. They increase 
rapidly in size, so that in two months they are from two to 
three-sixteenths of an inch in length, and nearly circular in 
outline. At this time eggs are abundantly produced under 
the large brown scales, and 1)y the first of July the young in- 
sects may be seen crawling over the branches. They pass on 
to the under side of the leaves, where they establisli themselves 
near the larger veins. Here they remain until the latter part 
of August, when they return to the brandies. The affected 
leaves make little growth and look unhealthy; and although 
the scales have increased but little in size, so much sap has 
been removed that the trees make but little growth and the 
fruit is dwarfed. When the insects return to the branches 
in the fall they are of a rich brown color, and but one-twenty- 
fifth of an inch in length ; in this form they hibernate, and the 
following spring they again become active. 

Treatment. In the fall, as soon as the foliage has fallen, spray 
the trees with the Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion diluted 
with four parts of water. A weaker emulsion will not V)e 
effective, and a stronger one may injure the trees. If this 
work is thoroughly done, the pest can be practically extermi- 
nated. The application may be made any time from Xoveni- 
ber to April. During the summer months the foliage interferes 
with the proper application of the spray, and the emulsion can- 
not be applied to the leaves with safety. 

Slug. See under Chekky. 



See Cottonwood. 



Fungous Diseases. 



POPLAR. 
POTATO. 



Early Blight (Mac ro.y tori ion SolanI, E. & ^I.). — Dcscriplinn. 
The early blight of potatoes is not yet fully understood, but 
much of the early dying of the leaves is no doubt caused l)y the 
fungus mentioned. Observations tend to show that the injuries 
caused by the flea-beetle frequently serve as starting-points for the 
disease (Fig. 79). Around the little holes made by these insects, 




Fig. i 



79. -Earlv blight {Macroxporhim Solani) on potato foliage. 



U6 



Potato. 347 

there may be seen tlie characteristic browning and drying of the 
leaf-tissue, rings of a darlcer color being visible in the affected 
areas. The edges of the leaves are more generally affected, and 
as the small, circular spots increase in size they run together 
and destroy the entire outer portions of the leaf. 'J'hese then 
turn yellow and later brown, the edges curl up, and Unally all 
the leaflets and the petiole are destroyed. The injury also 
extends to the stems, and eventually the plant dies. The i>ota- 
toes do not rot, but they remain small. The browning of the 
tissue often begins during July, the trouble being much more 
severe upon mature plants, and if the weather is moist the 
trouble appears to increase less rapidly than dui'ing a drought. 
Whether the early blight fungus is capable of entering unin- 
jured tissue, or whether its entrance is entirely dependent upon 
the work of the flea-beetle, has not yet been definitely deter- 
mined, but it is undoubtedly true that the abundance of this 
insect has considerable influence upon the prevalence of the 
disease. In some cases the tissue dies apparently without the 
assistance of insects. 

Treafment. Spraying the vines with the Bordeaux mixture 
has given fairly good results. The fungicide should be used at 
least of normal strength, and it appears probable that a 
stronger mixture is still more beneficial. For very early i)ota- 
toes the first application should be made, in New York, in June ; 
for medium varieties from the first to the middle of fJuly ; while 
late varieties may not require treatment before the first of 
August, although this period is rather late, the third week in 
July being perhaps an average date. Applications should be 
repeated at intervals of two to four weeks, three treatments 
being sufficient in seasons favorable to the fungus. If power 
sprayers are used, each row should receive as much liquid as 
is thrown by two Vermorel nozzles while the horse is walking 
across the field. The vines should be very thoroughly treated. 

Rot ; Blight ; Late Blight ; Downy Mildew (Phi/tojihthoni In- 
fesfans, De Bary). — Description. Potato bliglit, or rot, has 
long been known as the most serious and destructive of all 
potato troubles. When the weather is warm and moist the 
disease spreads with great rapidity, so that an entire field may 
be destroyed in the course of a few days. The first synq>tom 
of the malady is the browning of distinct areas upon the potato 



348 



The Spraying of Plants. 



leaves (Fig. 80) ; the affected portions may be small, or they 
may extend over the entire leaflet. In this respect it differs 







Fig. 80. — Potato foliage attacked by Phytophthora infest cms, a fungus which 
causes rotting of the tubers. 



plainly from the early blight, which progresses slowly, and 
causes distinct, circular spots, while those produced by the 
rot are at first small and irregular but they rapidly extend 



Potato. 349 

under favorable circumstances over large portions of the foli- 
age. There is also soon formed on the under side of tlie dis- 
colored parts a frost-like coating, which is comjjosed of the 
summer spores and of the threads bearing them. Such a con- 
dition is not present when the plants are attacked hy the early 
Ijlight. The tubers of plants attacked by the phytophthora 
almost invariably rot, and it is on this account that the losses 
occasioned by the disease are often so great. It is supposed 
that the tubers are infested by spores which fall to the ground 
from the diseased leaves above, and not by the mycelium of the 
fungus growing downward within the stem to the potatoes. 
The spores are carried through the soil by descending water, 
and upon reaching the potatoes they gain an entrance into the 
tubers and cause the dry rot which is so destructive. It is pos- 
sible, however, that the tubers may be reached by both methods. 

As its name implies, the late blight does not appear early in 
the season. It rarely attacks plants before the middle of July, 
and frequently not before the first of September. Consequently 
there is abundant time for treating the vines, and the losses 
from this disease need not be heavy. 

Treatment. The potato rot caused by this fungus can be 
almost entirely prevented by the application of proper fungi- 
cides. The work of Professor Jones of Vermont has clearly 
shown that the disease can be controlled, and experiments made 
in Europe have emphasized the same fact. Bordeaux mixture 
is the best fungicide to use, as there is no danger of disfiguring 
the crop, nor of injuring the foliage. It should be made at least 
of "normal" strength, and when made according to the "stand- 
ard " formula, it has been still more effective. But the latter 
mixture is applied with considerable difficulty, so that thorough 
applications of the former are to be advised. Treatments may 
be begun any time during July, depending upon the time of 
planting and the lateness of the variety. July 15th is generally 
early enough for the first application in Xew York. It should 
be followed by one or two others made at intervals of one to 
three weeks, depending upon the weather. If the potato foliage 
is thoroughly covered with the mixture, little troul)le need be 
anticipated from this disease. 

Bacterial Blight. —Potatoes also appear to suffer from a bac- 
terial disease which causes the death of the parts above ground 



350 The Spraying of Plants. 

and also a rotting of the tubers. No distinct discoloration s appear 
upon the leaves, as is the case with fungous diseases, but the 
entire plant is unhealthy and dies prematurely. Tubers fre- 
quently show discolored patches on their surface before decay- 
ing; a soft rot results. Xo remedy is known, except rotation. 

Scab {Oospora scabies, Thax.). — Description. Potatoes very 
commonly suffer from the attacks of a fungus which causes the 
skin of the tubers to become rough or scurfy (Fig. 81), the 
injury often penetrating to a considerable depth. Tlie life 
history of the fungus is not yet well understood, but it is 




Fig. 81. — Potato scab. 



known that the disease may be communicated to new tubers by 
unclean seed, and that barnyard manure, lime, or ashes may 
have a tendency to increase the disease. Soil in which scabby 
potatoes have been produced also appears capable of infecting 
later crops. One kind of scab is caused by an insect. 

Treatment. Land in which the scab fungus is found should 
not be planted to potatoes, and only clean fertilizers or unin- 
fected manure should be applied. Scabby seed may be cleaned 
by soaking it for an hour and a half in a solution of corrosive 
sublimate, using one ounce of the poison in eight or nine gal- 
lons of water. This may be done either before or after the 
potatoes are cut, but the tubers must not again be brought in 



Potato. 351 

contact Avitli the disease. Tt is safer to treat the seed before it 
is cut; and if care is taken not to transfer the organism to the 
cleaned potatoes, no scab should develop upon clean land. Ilal- 
sted has been successful in prev^enting the development of the 
disease by rolling the seed in sulphur. He used the sulphur at 
the rate of three hundred pounds to the acre, that which did 
not adhere to the potatoes being sprinkled in the open row. 

Insect Enemies. 

Colorado Potato-beetle; Potato-bug ( Doryphora lO-lineata, Say). 

— Descrijilion. This insect is too well known to require a de- 
tailed description. It hibernates during the winter as a mature 
insect, and in the spring it begins to feed upon the foliage of 
eggplants or potatoes as soon as these are at hand. The eggs 
are laid on the under side of the leaves. They are bright yel- 
low in color, and easily seen. The larvre appear in al>out a 
week, and the plant is soon stripped of its foliage. In a short 
time the grubs become full grown ; they then leave the plant 
and pupate in the surface soil. Here they remain about ten 
days, when the mature insect again appears. There are three 
or four broods each year. 

Treatment. Potato-beetles are easily destroyed by spraying 
the young plants with an arsenical poison. This sliould be 
done early in the season so that the first beetles, or at least 
the first brood of larv?p, may be exterminated. The poison 
should be made about one-fourth or one-third stronger than 
for fruits, as these insects seem to require more i^oison than 
most others. There is no danger of injuring potato foliage in 
this manner. 

Flea-beetle {Pliyllolreta vittata,Yahr.', HaIticastriolata,lliiYns). 

— Description. This species of flea-beetle, as well as several 
others, makes the growing of many garden plants a diflicult 
matter. The mature beetles are, as a rule, not more than one- 
tenth of an inch in length. They are very active, and move so 
quickly that their popular name is very appropriate. The 
beetles appear early in spring and eat out little cavities in the 
tender foliage of young plants, often to such an extent that the 
plants are ruined. If the work of the beetles does not destroy 
the crop, the injured parts afford conditions suitable to the 
growth of certain fungi, and these two parasites may succeed 



352 The Spraying of Plants. 

in accomplishing that which each alone could not have done. 
There appear to be several broods of the beetles each season. 

Treatment. No uniformly effective remedies are known. 
Good results have been obtained by dusting the young plants, 
while wet, very freely with tobacco dust. Arsenites have also 
been recommended, as well as lime, ashes, plaster, and kerosene 
emulsion. Bordeaux mixture and soap has given good results 
in certain cases when thoroughly applied. 

^ ^ PRIVET. 

Fungous Diseases. 

The privet is comparatively free from fungous diseases, one 
form of blight which occasionally appears rather suddenly being 
the most serious. It is probably due to PhyUosticta Ligustri, Sacc 
Little attention has been given it, but the use of Bordeaux mix- 
ture is the most promising line of treatment. 

Insect Enemies. 

Privet Web-worm {Margarodes quadristigmalis, Gn.). — De- 
scription. The adult moth is almost entirely white, a narrow 
brown line marking the anterior edge of the front wings ; there 
are also a few brown dots and markings at the outer edges of 
both pairs of wings. The body is almost entirely white. It is 
nearly five-eighths of an inch in length, the wings expanding 
about one and one-fourth inches. Eggs are laid in spring, near 
the mid-vein of the leaves ; they hatch in less than a week, and 
the larvae immediately begin to feed upon the foliage. They 
vary in color from yellowish-green to a very dark green, while 
along the back are situated two rows of small black warts. The 
head is yellowish-green. The caterpillars feed for about three 
weeks ; they then pupate, the moth appearing about eight days 
later. There are at least four broods of this insect each year in 
the latitude of Washington. 

Treatment. The free use of arsenites or of kerosene emulsion 
will undoubtedly exterminate the insect if the work is begun 
when the first larvae are seen in spring. 

Fungous DiSEASKS. PUMPKIN. 

Powdery Mildew. See under Muskmelon. 
Insect Enemies. See under Cucumber. 



Quince. 



353 



Fungous Diseases. 



QUINCE. 



Black Rot (Spha'roi)Kis ^f(donlt)^, Peck). — Desrri/ttioji. Apples 
and pears, as well as quinces, suffer from the fungus wliirh 
causes black rot. The fruit is generally not attacked until it is 
at least one-half grown. 
Infection takes place, as 
a rule, at the blossom 
end. A small brown 
spot aj)pears upon the 
surface, and as it in- 
creases in size dark pim- 
ples appear upon the 
part first affected. Later 
the fruit cracks, and 
spores are freely dis- 
tributed. The diseased 
quinces frequently re- 
main hanging on the 
trees throughout the 
winter, and serve as ex- 
cellent sources of infec- 
tion. 

Treatment. As the 
malady appears late in 
the season, the applica- 
tion of the Bordeaux 
mixture can scarcely be 
recommended. Clear 

fungicides should be used, and, if thoroughly applied, the dis- 
ease, which, as a rule, is not serious, can prol)ably be held in 
check by two or three treatments. 

Blight. See under Peak. 

Leaf Blight; Fruit Spot; Leaf Spot {Entomosporium macula- 
turn, Lev.). — Description. Quince foliage is generally affected 
by the leaf-blight fungus during early summer. Fig. 8*2 
represents quince foliage dotted with the small circular spots 
which are produced by the fungus. These are of a reddish- 
brown color, and although at first circular in form, when several 

2 A 




Fig. 82. — Qiiiuce foliaf,^' affected with leaf blijrht. 



854 



The Spraying of Plants. 



are united, the diseased part assumes an irregular outline. Badly- 
infested leaves turn yellow and fall to the ground during the 
latter part of summer, or early in the fall. Trees very com- 
monly lose all their leaves in this manner. Upon the fruit, if 
the attack takes place after the quince is nearly grown, dark 
brown or nearly black sunken areas are formed, these being 
more or less thickly scattered over the surface, as shown in 
Fig. 83. If the quince is affected while it is small, its shape 

may be much altered, for 
the flesh becomes cracked 
and corky in the diseased 
places. Such fruit is only 
too familiar to quince 
growers. The fungus also 
attacks pears. 

Treatment. The method 
of treating this disease has 
ali'eady been mentioned 
under leaf blight of the 
pear. The two fruits are 
treated in a similar man- 
ner, but the applications 
made upon the quince 
during the latter part of 
June and in July are the 
most important ones. 

Ripe Rot. See under 
Apple. 

Rust (Roestelia auranti- 
aca, Pk.). — Description. 
This disease (Fig. 84) "is 
very conspicuous upon the fruit, as it covers the injured portion 
of the quince with an orange, fringe-like growth. The tube-like 
projections of the fungus contain numerous spores, and when 
this stage is apparent, the fruit is already irrevocably ruined. 
Sometimes the entire young fruit is involved, and it may die 
and fall; but more often the fruit hangs upon the tree, and 
the diseased portion becomes dry, hard, black, and sunken. 
. . . This rust fungus also penetrates the twigs, and often 
causes knots to appear, resembling the black knot of the 




Fig. 83. — Quince attacked during- the latter 
part of tlie season by fruit spot. 



Quince, Raspberry. 355 

plum." 1 The life history of this fungus is similar to tliat caus- 
ing- the rust of apples, which see. 
Treatment. See under Apple. 

IxsECT Enemies. 

Borers. See under Apple. 
Slug. See under Chekky. 




Fig. 84. — Yuiuig qiiiuces attacked by rust. 

Insect Enemies. RADISH. 

Maggot. See under Cabbage. 

RASPBERRY. 

Anthracnose ; Cane Rust (Gloeosporiiitn necaior, E. & E.), — 
Description. This fungus attacks the young canes of raspber- 
ries, blackberries, and dewberries. It appears during the latter 
part of June and during July, attacking the lower parts of the 

1 Bailey, Cornell Agric. L\vp. S/a. Is94, Dec, Bull. SO, 625, 6'20. 



356 



The Spraying of Plants. 



canes first. The affected parts are circular but later oval in 
outline (Fig. 85), the central part is gray in color, and this is 
surrounded by a distinct purple rim. These areas are sunken, 
and "vvhen several run together they may cause the cracking of 
the cane, or even its death. The leaves are also attacked to a 
limited extent, but with no such serious results. When the 
fruit stems are diseased, the berries are frequently prevented 
from ripening, and consequently they dry up on the bushes. 

Treatment. An- 
thracnose has not 
yet been very suc- 
cessfully treated. 
The best recom- 
mendations wliich 
can now be given 
are to spray the 
bushes thoroughly 
with the copper sul- 
phate solution be- 
fore the buds swell 
in the spring, and 
to follow this by re- 
peated and copious 
applications of the 
Bordeaux mixture 
at intervals of two 
weeks until mid- 
summer. A clear 
fungicide may be necessary to avoid staining the fruit. Even 
this treatment may not hold the disease in check. In that case 
perhaps the best method to follow is to cut off all growth close 
to the ground during the fall or spring, and then burn the canes. 
This means the loss of one year's crop, but the source of infec- 
tion would no doubt be so reduced that but little disease should 
appear during the next few years, especially if the bushes are 
also sprayed as above described. Or the entire plantation may 
be pulled up and a new one, composed of less susceptible vari- 
eties, may be set upon other land. 

Orange-rust; Red-rust (Cceoma luminatum, Link). — Descrip- 
tion. This fungus is found upon blackberries and raspberries. 




FiQ. 85. — Raspberry authracnose, or cane rust. 



Raspberry. 357 

It possesses a perennial mycelium, so that when a plant is once 
infested it cannot be cured. The fungus has two forms which 
were formerly supposed to be distinct plants. One form is 
known as Puccinia Peckiana ; it attacks the foliage, and pro- 
duces spores which germinate in the fall or spring. The myce- 
lium enters the canes of the host-plant, probably by means of 
the underground parts, and from there it spreads to the vari- 
ous branches. The copious production of orange-colored spores 
on the under side of the foliage of diseased plants is the result 
of such infection. This condition is preceded by an appear- 
ance which is easily recognized : the leaves are smaller, and 
they have a pale green color which distinguishes them from 
the healthy tissues. 

Treatment. The only practical remedy yet known is to dig 
out and destroy affected plants as soon as they are discovered. 
Spraying the foliage with a fungicide to prevent the entrance 
of the fungus into the leaves might be followed by good results. 

Insect Enemies. 

Cane-borer (Oherea bimaculata, Oliv.). — Description. The 
mature insect is a slender, black beetle about half an inch in 
length. During June it lays its eggs in the young shoots which 
grow from the base of the plant. A row of punctures is made 
above and below the place in which the egg is inserted. The 
egg soon hatches and the grub begins to burrow downward. 
By autumn it has reached the roots of the plant. The follow- 
ing spring the adults again appear. 

Treatment. The puncturing of the young canes when the 
eggs are laid causes the tips to wilt and on this account the 
affected shoots are readily seen. They should be cut off below 
the injured part, and destroyed. The canes should also be 
watched during late summer, and any which are found wilting 
should be cut out close to the ground and burned. 

Sawfly ; Raspberry-slug (Sehmdria Ruhi, Harris). — Descrip- 
tion. During May and early in June the raspberry sawfly may 
be seen among the canes of these plants. It is a black, four- 
winged fly, the abdomen being tinged with red. The eggs are 
laid within the leaf, generally near the veins. The larv?e are at 
first nearly white, but later they become dark green and are 
thickly covered with soft spines of the same color. When 



358 The Spraying of Plants, 

grown, the larvae are about half an inch in length. They feed 
uj^on the foliage of the plants, and, if j^i'esent in considerable 
numbers, the foliage may be almost entirely devoured. During 
June the insect pupates, but the adult does not aj)pear until the 
following spring. 

Treatment. The slugs are readily destroyed by the arsenites, 
hellebore, or pyrethrum. But some applications must neces- 
sarily l)e made while the plants are in blossom; tliis exjioses 
bees to the action of the poisons, and large numbers of these 
insects are destroyed whenever enougli poison to kill the slugs 
is applied. Under such circumstances it is a question of killing 
the bees or tearing out the plants. Hand picking might be 
practiced, and if carried on for a year or two would greatly 
reduce the numbers of the ]>est. Kerosene emulsion might also 
be tried, the blossoms being touched as little as possiltle. 

ROSE. 

Black Spot; Leaf Blight (Actinnncmd Rosce, Fries). — De.'<crip- 
tion. During early summer the foliage of roses suffers from the 
attacks of a fungus which causes the formation of irrt'gulai-, 
black spots uj>on the upi>er surface of tiic leaves (Fig. ^><i). 
The spots eventually become nearly circular; their edges are 
a]»parently fring«*(l with dt'licatf white, and later in the season 
the affected leaves turn yellow. an<l fall to the ground; at this 
time the spots may be fully half an inch in diameter. Roses 
grown indoors or in the open aj»pear to be ecjually affected. 

Treatment. Fungicides containing copper will check the dis- 
ease if the treatments are begun as soon as the buds open in 
spring. Clear solutions are to be preferred. Removing and 
destroying the affected leaves will also tend to lessen the 
trouble. 

Leaf Spot (Cercospora roacecola^ Pass.). — Description. The 
spots formed by this fungus are dark red or nearly l)lack, the 
edges of the well-defined areas being mostly of a red color. 
The center changes to a grayish-brown color as the season 
advances. Only those plants which grow out of doors are 
affected, the foliage being the part generally attacked. 

'Treatment. The treatment described under Black Spot, 
above, is also recommended for this disease. 



Rose. 



359 



Mildew {Sphcerotlieca pannosa, Lev.). — Description. This 
fungus attacks roses which are grown under glass and also 
those out of doors. It checks the growth of the young shoots, 
and causes the leaves to remain dwarfed and curied, the edges 




Fig. 86. — Black spot of roses 



being generally rolled downward. At the same time, a white 
powdery growth entirely covers the affected areas, and the 
plants soon become so weakened that they possess no practical 
value. Fig. 87 represents a leaf partially affected. 

Treatment. The treatment of mildews affecting plants grown 
under glass has already been discussed under Greenhouse 



360 



The Spraying of Plants. 






Pests. Many of the same remedies will also prove of value 
with plants grown in the border, sulphm- and the copper com- 
pounds being particularly recommended. 




Fig. 87. —Rose leaf attacked by mildew. 

Rose Phragmidium (Phragmidium speciosum, Fries) . — De- 
scription. The stems of roses suffer severely from this fungus. 
The mycelium is perennial, and the affected places show irregu- 
lar elevated areas on the stem (Fig. 88). They are black in 
color, and consist of innumerable spores borne upon slender 
filaments. In severe cases the diseased stems die. 



Rose. 



361 



Treatment. The treatment recommended against the rust 
will also apply to this disease. In addition, however, the 
affected stems' should be removed as soon as discovered. 

Rust (^Pliragmidium mucronatum, Winter). — Description. All 
the young green parts of the rose are subject to the attacks of 




Fig. 88. — Rose Phragmidium. 



the rust fungus. It causes the formation, in early summer, of 
small reddish-yellow spots which gradually increase in size as 
the season advances. The stems frequently become bent and 
twisted by the growth of the mycelium. During August, the 
color of the spots changes to dark red. In the fall, small dark 



362 The Sprai/mg of Plants. 

bodies are produced on the under side of the leaves ; they con- 
tain the spores which preserve the fungus through the winter. 

Treatment. The plants, and the soil about them, should be 
sprayed in early spring before growth has commenced with the 
copper sulphate solution. After the buds have burst the Bor- 
deaux mixture should be used, or some clear fungicide whicli 
will not stain the leaves. These applications should be contin- 
ued until midsummer at intervals of two or three weeks. Rakinu' 
and burning the leaves in the fall will also diminish the trouble. 

Insect Enemies. 

Mealy-bug. See under Ghrexiioi'se Pests. 

Rose-chafer; Rose-beetle; Rose-bug (M(i<-n><ltirt//his suhspinosus, 
Fabr.). — Descrijjfion. The beetles appear, as a rule, early in 
June. They are about half an inch in length and of a yellowish- 
brown color, the legs being pale red. The beetles feed for about 
a month after the time of tlieir first appearance. They devour 
nearly all kinds of foliage, and in some localities fruit planta- 
tions are annually almost ruined by these insects. Shortly be- 
fore the disappearance of the adults, the eggs are laid in the 
ground near the surface. The grul)s feed upon the roots of 
various plants and in the fall they descend below the frost line 
and there pass the winter. In the spring they ascend to the 
surface and pupate, the adult emerging as above stated. There 
is but one brood each year. 

Treatment. No satisfactory remedies for the destruction of 
the rose-beetle are known. The insect can persist only on 
sandy land, for heavier soil prevents the grubs from descending 
to a proper depth. It is, therefore, only on sandy land that the 
pest is to be feared. The following methods of exterminating 
the insect have been recommended, but none are entirely satis- 
factory : *' Hand picking. Knocking off on sheets early in the 
morning. Bagging. Pyrethrum. Kerosene emulsion. Py- 
rethro-kerosene emulsion. Eau celeste. It is said to prefer 
Clinton grapes, spireas, rose-bushes, and magnolias, and it has 
been suggested that these plants be used as a decoy. Open 
vials of bisulphide of carbon lumg in bushes and vines are 
recommended by some. Sludge-oil soap, a manufactured ma- 
terial. Spraying with dilute lime whitew^ash. Hot water, at 
a temperature of 125° to 130° F. To prevent the insects from 



Rose^ Spinach. 363 

breeding, keep the light lands — in which they breed — under 
thorough cultivation, and especially never seed them down." i 

Rose Leaf-hopper {Typlilocyha Rosce, Harris). — Description. 
These insects are generally found upon the under side of the 
leaves, but when disturbed they move or fly rapidly from place 
to place. They live upon the juices of the plants, and are fre- 
quently serious. The mature insect is less than a fourth of an 
inch in length ; its wing covers are nearly transparent, and the 
body is yellowish- white. There are several broods. The af- 
fected leaves show irregular, white markings on their upper 
surface, and in this manner the presence of the pest may easily 
be observed. 

TreatmenL The same remedies mentioned under Currant 
Green-leaf-hopper may also be employed against this insect. 

SHADE TREES; SHRUBS. 

There are many fungi and insects attacking other plants 
than those mentioned individually in this work, but it is 
scarcely practicable to describe each in detail. The reader is 
referred to Chapter VI., in which general directions will be 
found ; it is hoped these will serve as guides in the treatment 
of any trouble which it is desired to overcome. 

SPINACH. 

Anthracnose {Colletotrichum Spinacece, E. & H.). — Description. 
The affected parts are generally circular in form; they soon 
produce brown pustules, and the color of the spot gradually 
changes to gray. The fungus spreads with great rapidity, 
attacking the old and the young leaves indiscriminately. 

Mildew {Peronospora effiisa, Rabenh.). — Description. Spin- 
ach grown under glass is frequently attacked by this fungus. 
The diseased foliage shows " gray, slightly violet patches of a 
velvety texture upon the under side of the leaves, while from 
the upper side they have a pale yellow shade due to the loss of 
the green color." 2' Dr. Ilalsted has also described three other 
fungous diseases of spinach, viz. black mold, leaf blight, and 

1 Bailey, IlorticiiUurisfs Bule-BooJc, 1895, 42. 

2 Halsted, N. J. Agric. Exp. Sta. 1890, July, Bull. 70, 5. 



364 The Sprayijig of Plants. 

white smut, and the reader is referred to the bulletin mentioned 
below for detailed descriptions. 

Treatment. All spinach diseases are controlled with difficulty, 
since the parts attacked by the fungi grow quickly, and they 
are then used as food. Fungicides would undoubtedly prevent 
the entrance of the parasites, but the market value of the crop 
would be lessened to such an extent that the applications can 
scarcely be advised. The plants might be sprayed with dilute 
solutions of clear fungicides, but comparatively little has as yet 
been done in this direction. The destruction of all infested 
leaves or plants appears to be the most advisable procedure. 

SQUASH. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Powdery Mildew. See under Muskmelon. 

Insect Enemies. 
See under Cucumber. 

STRAWBERRY. 

Leaf Blight; Rust; Sunburn {Splucrella Frar/aricc, Sacc). — 
Description. The foliage of strawberries is subject to the 
attacks of a fungus Avhich may appear at any time during the 
growing season. The first symptom of the disease is the for- 
mation of small purple spots which gradually increase in size 
until they are from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in 
diameter (Fig. 89). The purple color is early replaced by a 
clear, reddish-brown, which becomes of a still lighter shade as 
tlie season advances ; the edges of the spots, however, generally 
remain purple. Badly infested leaves turn dark and are of no 
value. The fungus passes the winter by means of spores, and 
by mycelium contained within the leaves. This disease is fre- 
quently very serious, especially upon certain varieties. 

Treatment. Spraying the plants with the Bordeaux mixture 
will check the trouble. Applications should be begun as soon 
as growth starts in spring, and non-bearing ^^Ifints may be 
treated throughout the summer, the treatments being made 
at intervals of three or four weeks. Bearing plantations will 
derive benefit from a treatment made when growth starts in 



Strmvherry. 



365 



the spring, and from another made when the first blossoms 
open. After harvesting the fruit, it is a good plan to mow off 
the old foliage, then to remove and destroy it. Burning the 
strawberry patch over is frequently followed by bad results. 
The new growth should then be sprayed at intervals of three 
or four weeks until two or three applications have been made. 

Mildew {Sj)Juerotheca Castagnei, Lev.). — Description. This 
fungus grows on the berries, and also on the surface of the 



vU 




Fig. 89. — Strawberry leaf blight. 

strawberry leaves, during the summer. It covers them witli 
a thin net of mycelium which resembles delicate cobweb. 
Affected leaves curl and appear as if suffering from want of 
water (Fig. 90). The disease is rarely serious. 

Treatment. When the malady is first seen, spray the plants 
with a fungicide containing copper. Sulphur, if scattered upon 
the leaves and between the plants, is also said to check the 
disease, since the heat of the sun at this season of the year is 
sufticiently great to cause fumes to be given off freely. 



366 The Spraying of Plants. 

Insect Enemies. * 

liQai-xoXlQi {Plioxopieris comptana, Frol.). — Description. The 
adult insect is a small, brown moth measuring about half an 
inch across the wings. It appears in early spring and lays its 
eggs upon the leaves of the strawberry, although the raspberry 
and blackberry are rarely affected. The larvae are greenish 
brown, and when full grown, nearly half an inch in length, but 
rather slender. They mature in June after having spun a web 
which causes the familiar rolling upward of the leaflets. Tlie 
soft tissue of the leaf is eaten, and what remains turns reddish 
brown, giving the plant a burned appearance. There are two 
broods in the North, the winter being passed in the pupal stage. 

Treatment. Spray the plants during August, when the second 
brood of larvae appears, with an insecticide such as Paris green 
or London purple. Two applications may be required. Or the 
foliage may be cut and burned, for the first brood pupates in 
the rolled leaf, and in this manner it may be practically exter- 
minated. 

Sawfly; Slug {Emphytus maculatus, Norton). — Description. 
" The four-winged fly appears in spring, and deposits its eggs 
within the tissues of the leaf or stem. The larvae hatch in a 
short time and feed upon the leaf, gnawing small, circular 
holes at first like those eaten out of currant and gooseberry 
leaves by young currant-worms. They develop in five or six 
w^eeks into pale green worms about three-fourths of an inch 
long. The larvae now go slightly beneath the surface, where 
they form cocoons within which they change to the pupa state, 
and later emerge as flies. In the southern states there are two 
broods each season, wiiile at the North there appears to be but 
one."i 

Treatment. Burn the foliage as soon as the crop is harvested, 
or spray with hellebore or Paris green before there is danger of 
poisoning the fruit. Plants which are not bearing may be 
sprayed with an arsenite when the worms first appear, and 
again later if necessary. 

Tarnished Plant-bug (Lygus pratensis, Linn.). — Description. 
This bug is about one-fourth of an inch in length. It is very 
variable in color, some being dark yellow, and others nearly 

1 Weed, " Insects and Insecticides," 1S91, 92. 



Strawberry 



367 



black. Tlie adult hibernates during the winter, but in the 
spring it sucks the juice of the growing plants, [)referring to 
obtain it from the young fruits, which are in consequence 
dwarfed. Eggs are laid early iji spring, and soon both adult 




Fig. 90. — Strawberry leaf curled by the mildew. 



and immature forms may be found. A great many species of 
plants suffer later in the season, and as there are from two to 
four broods each year, much injury may be done. 

Treatment. Pyrethrum powder dusted freely upon affected 
plants will destroy the insects; this is probably the best rem- 



368 The Spraying of Plants. 

edy. Kerosene emulsion is also effective, but there is danger of 
tainting the fruit. 

SWEET POTATO. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Black Rot (Cei'atocystis Jimbriata, E. & IL). — Description. 
The fungus causes large, greenish-black patches to appear upon 
the tubers; the dark color eventually extends deeply into the 
potato, entirely ruining it. The disease may attack the young 
plants in the seed beds, the infection coming either from the 
soil or from unhealthy tubers. When the young sprouts are 
affected, the stems near the ground become discolored by dark 
lines or blotches, and the lower leaves frequently suffer in the 
same manner. The shoots frecpiently die beyond the point of 
attack. 

Treatment. The use of unaifected potatoes for producing the 
sets is essential. Xo diseased sprouts should be planted, and, if 
possible, land that is free from the fungus should be used for 
the crop. Spraying with copper compounds may materially 
assist in checking the trouble in the field, and soaking the 
tubers a short time in the ammoniacal carbonate of copper 
before storing them may prevent its spread in the bins. 

Leaf Spot {PJtyllosticta bataticola, E. and INI.). — Description. 
Sweet-potato foliage attacked by this disease dies at the points 
of infection, the dead portions turning nearly white. The 
plants may suffer severely from the disease, the yield being 
correspondingly reduced. 

Treatment. Spray with the Bordeaux mixture at the first 
appearance of the fungus. 

White Mold; Leaf Mold (C>/stopus Jpomoece-pandu7^anfe,FsiYl.). 
— Description. This fungus causes the leaves to turn l)rown, 
the older ones being particularly affected. Small white patches 
also appear on the under side of the discolored areas. 

Treatment. Spraying the vines with a good fungicide will 
probably prove valuable in checking the disease. 

Insect Enemies. 

Sawfly (Schizocerus ebenus, Norton; S. privatus, Norton). — 
Description. These two sawfiies are not, as a rule, very seri- 
ous, but occasionally they develop in sufficient numbers to do 



Sweet Potato^ Sycamore. 369 

considerable damage. The larv?e appear during the summer, 
and feed upon the foliage. 

Treatment. The same treatment recommended for the de- 
struction of the currant sawfly will also destroy these insects. 
The applications, however, need not begin until the young 
larvfB are noticed, but they should be repeated as required 
during the summer. 

Tortoise Beetles; Golden Bugs (Cassidce). — Description. The 
insects hibernate in tlic adult state. They attack the young 
potato vines during jNIay and June, eating irregular holes in 
the foliage. Eggs are laid, and during June and July the 
Iarv?e appear. At this time the vines are growing so fast that 
the insects do comparatively little injury. The adults appear 
again during July and August, but no eggs seem to be laid 
until the following spring. 

Treatment. Professor J. B. Smith recommends the use of 
Paris green or London purple at the rate of 1 pound to 175 
gallons of water. The application should be made as soon as 
injury is noticed, both sides of the leaves receiving treatment. 
The vines should be treated again if the first application does 
not prove effective. 

SYCAMORE. 

Leaf Blight (Gla^osporium nervisequum, Sacc). — Description. 
Both the native and the foreign species of jDlane trees are sub- 
ject to the attacks of a fungus which causes the leaves to appear 
as if scorched. The disease develops, so early in the season 
that the injury caused by it is often ascril)ed to frost. Entire 
trees are frequently discolored by the abundance of brown leaf 
surface, and although this form of the disease is present only 
about two months, still trees have been killed by the repeated 
attacks of the fungus. Diseased leaves often fall. 

Treatment. The severity of the attacks can undoubtedly be 
diminished by spraying with fungicides as soon as the leaves 
unfold in spring, repeating the operation so that all new growths 
may be protected. But such applications can only be made to 
smaller trees, and when they are impracticable a probable help 
in checking the malady is to burn all ah'ected leaves that fall 
from the trees. 

2B 



370 The Spraying of Plants, 

TOBACCO. 
Insect Enemies. 

Tobacco worm (Phlegethontius Carolina, Linn.). — Description. 
The moth closely resembles the tomato worm as regards color 
and habits. There are two broods in the South, and it is here 
that much injury is done to the tobacco plantations through 
the ravenous appetite of the worms. 

Treatment. The destruction of the insect by means of the 
arsenites appears to be the most feasil)le method. The follow- 
ing practice appears to be safe and efficient : ^ " To those who 
wish to use poison I would advise the use of («) Paris green, 
\ pound in a forty-gallon barrel of water, with a little white- 
wash well stirred in. (/>) That the mixture be kept well stirred 
in the barrel and sprayer, (c) That ai>plications should begin 
by the tenth of June and be repeated every two weeks by top- 
ping, and tliat no applications sJiould be made after that time.^' 
Hand picking may also be resorted to. 



TO.MATO. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Blight {Clailosporium fulriim, Cooke). — Description. Af- 
fected leaves first show dark-brown spots on the under side. 
The upper surface at the same time turns yellow and the edges 
of the leaves curl downward, as a rule. As the disease pro- 
gresses, the foliage shrivels and eventually dies, leaving the 
naked stems. The fungus is found both in greenhouses and 
out of doors. 

T'reatment. For the treatment of the blight when found 
upon plants grown under glass, see Grekxhousk Pests. WIkmi 
the fungus appears out of doors, the plants should immediately 
be thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture, or modified 
eau celeste, repeating the treatment at intervals of ten days or 
two weeks, until no further infection is feared. 

Rot (Macrosporiiim Tomato, Cooke). — Description. This 
fungus generally attacks the tomatoes when they are over one- 
half grown. The l>lossom end is attacked, the appearance of a 
small black spot being the first indication of the disease. This 

1 Peter, Ay. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 53, 139. 



Tomato. 



371 



spot increases in size until fully half of the tomato is destroyed. 
The diseased part is black and sunken, and generally extends 
squarely across the tomato from side to side (Fig. JU). The 
warm moist weather of summer appears to be particularly 
favorable to the development of this parasite. 

Treatment. Very thorough spraying with the Bordeaux mix- 
ture, or other copper compound, is perhaps the l)est preventive. 
If possible, a dry location should be selected for growing tlie 
plants, and the stems should be kept free from the ground. 




Fig. 91. — Tomato rot. 



Two other serious diseases of the tomato are also known, but 
as they are probably caused by bacteria, no remedies can as yet 
be nained. It is probable that one of these organisms is the 
first cause of the rotting of tomatoes above described. 

Insect Enemies. 

Tomato Worm (Phlegethontius celeus, nhn.).—Descripflon. 
The larvae of this moth are fully three inches in length when 
grown. They are of a green color, but have a few nearly white 
markings on each side of the body. They devour an enormous 
amount of foliage, and can be discovered by the bare places 
among the plants. Early in September the larva3 enter the 
ground to pupate, and here they remain until the following 
summer, when the moths appear. These belong to the Sphinx 



372 



The Spraying of Plants. 



family, and they are beantifuUy and delicately marked. They 
fl}^ mostly in the evening. The ground color is a soft gray, but 
there are various markings of a darker color, some red or 
reddish-brown parts being present. 

Treatment. Hand picking is the most common method of 
destroying tlie larvne, but any of the poisons in use against 
chewing insects would answer the purpose as well. 



TURNIP. 



Insect Enemies. 

Maggot. See under Cabbage. 



YEKBEXA. 



FrxooT's Diseases. 



Mildew ; Rust {Erysiphe Cichoracedrum, DC, or Oldium eri/- 
siphoides, Fr.). See under Cucumbek. 



^ ^ VIOLET. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Mildew. See under Pansy. 

Rust ; Spot ; Violet Disease 
{Cerc(>s/>nra ]lola\ Sacc). — All 
violet growers are familiar 
Avitli this disease (Fig. 92), 
which causes the formation 
u[ion violet foliage of small, 
circuhir, grayish- white spots 
having a dark center. The 
first appearance of the disease 
may occur during sununer, 
while the ]ilants are in the 
open ground. Or it may not 
be visible until late in win- 
ter. Surrounding conditions 
appear to have a strong influ- 
ence in the development of the 
fungus. Too much heat, care- 
lessness in watering, fresh staV)le manure, and improper ven- 
tilation have all been advanced as immediate causes of the 




Fig. 92. — Violet disease. 



Violet, Willow. 373 

appearance of the disease. Much trutli undoubtedly lies in 
these statements, and the requirements of the plants should be 
thoroughly understood by all who attempt to grow the crop. 

Treatment. Give good culture. If the disease persists, spray 
the plants with a good fungicide, as the Bordeaux mixture, 
making the first application as soon as the disease appears, 
and repeating it at intervals of two to four weeks. Destroy 
affected leaves and plants. 



WATERMELON. 
Fungous Diseases. 

Anthracnose. — This disease may be identical with the an- 
thracnose of the Bean, which see. 
Powdery Mildew. See under Muskmelon. 

WEIGELIA. 
Insect Enemies. 

Four-lined Leaf -bug. See under Currant. 

WHEAT. 

Fungous Diseases. 

Stinking Smut {Tilletia foeteus, Schroet. ; and T. Tritici 
Wint.). — Description. This disease causes the wheat kernels 
to become swollen as they approach maturity. They are at 
first green in color, but later turn grayish-brown. If a kernel 
is crushed, it will be found to be filled with a brown powder 
possessing a very disagreeable odor : this has been the cause of 
the popular name of the disease. 

Treatment. See under Oats. 

Loose Smut (Ustilago Tritici, Jensen). — Description. This 
disease closely resembles the loose smut of oats. Unfortunately, 
no practical remedies are as yet known. 

WILLOW. 
Insect Enemies. 

Willow-worm; Antiopa Butterfly {Vanessa Antiopa, Linn.). 
— Description. The adult insect hibernates during the winter. 



874 The Spraying of Plants. 

It is a butterfly whose wings are "purplish brown above, with a 
broad buif-yellow iiiargin, near the inner edge of which tliere 
is a row of pale blue spots. Expands from three to three and 
a quarter inches."^ The eggs are laid early in spring upon 
willow, poplar, and elm trees, the young larv?e appearing early 
in June. When full grown the larvae are nearly two inches in 
length ; the ground color is black, but it is relieved by spots 
of white and red. During June the larvae pupate, the adult 
appearing early in July. There are two broods each year, the 
larva? of the second appearing in August. 

Treatment. The caterpillars are voracious feeders, and they 
may be destroyed by arsenical poisons. 

1 Harris, "Insects of Mass. Injurious to Vegetation," 1S41, 218. 



APPENDIX. 



A. LAWS REGARDING THE SPRAYING OF PLANTS. 

Many of the organisms which attack cultivated plants have 
become so abundant and serious in certain localities that com- 
munities have taken measures to check the spread of existing 
parasites, and also to prevent the introductions of different ones 
which occur in other localities. A few States have passed quar- 
antine laws with this end in view, all nursery stock being I'igidly 
examined, and treated if necessary, before its passage into the 
State is allowed. The exportation of trees, etc., from very re- 
stricted areas within certain States has also been forbidden. 
The suppression of insect and fungous diseases is thus rapidly 
increasing in importance, and laws aiming at their extermina- 
tion are being more and more frequently passed. Several of 
these consider the spraying of plants, and below will be found 
the leading points concerning these acts. 

California has been a pioneer in legislating against plant 
diseases. On March 14, 1881, there was approved "An Act 
to Protect and Promote the Horticultural Interests of the 
State." It was amended by an act approved March 19, 1889, 
and by an act approved March 31, 1891. Section 1 states: 
" Whenever a petition is presented to the Board of Supervisors 
of any county, and signed by twenty-five or more persons who 
are resident freeholders and possessors of an orchard, or both, 
stating that certain or all orchards or nurseries, or trees of any 
variety are infested with scale insects of any kind injurious to 
fruit, fruit trees, and vines, codlin-moth, or other insects that 
are destructive to trees, and praying that a commission be 

375 



376 Appendix. 

appointed l)y them, whose duty it shall he to supervise their 
destruction as herein provided, the Board of Supervisors shall, 
within twenty days thereafter, select three commissioners for 
the county to be known as a ' County Board of Horticultural 
Commissioners.' . . ." [Statutes of California, 1889, 413.] 

It is the duty of the County Board to cause the inspection of 
all plantations and buildings in which the presence of injurious 
insects or fungi is feared. If such are found, a notice is served 
upon the proper individuals, and it then becomes incumbent 
upon the latter to destroy the pest. In case this is not done 
within a certain period, the Board is compelled to assume the 
work, the expenses being ultimately drawn from the owners of 
the property. An excellent feature of the above law is that all 
officials are required to enforce its provisions, as is distinctly 
stated. The mere granting of power to act in a certain man- 
ner has been fatal to the enforcement of other laws of this 
nature. 

Several counties have availed themselves of the benefits to be 
derived from the above acts, and have passed ordinances suited 
to their needs. In 1891, thirty-four counties possessed " Horti- 
cultural Quarantine Guardians." 

Canada possesses a law which prohibits spraying fruit trees 
while in bloom with any substance injurious to bees. The act 
was passed in April, 1892, and reads as follows : 

" 1. No person in spraying or spriidvling fruit trees during 
the period within which such trees are in full bloom shall use, 
or cause to be used, any mixture containing Paris green or any 
other poisonous substance injurious to bees. 

"!2. Any person contravening the provisions of this Act, 
shall on summary conviction thereof before a justice of the 
peace, be subject to a penalty of not less than $1.00 or more 
than ^5.00 with or without costs of prosecution, and in case of 
a fine or a fine and costs being awarded, and of the same not 
being upon conviction forthwith paid, the justice may commit 
the offender to the common gaol, there to be imprisoned for any 
term not exceeding thirty days unless the fine and costs are 
sooner paid. 

"3. This Act shall not come into force until the first day of 
January, 1893." 



Appendix. 377 

This law scarcely appears necessary, as all our fruits may be 
amply protected without treating them during the blossoming 
period ; and, bees unquestionably suffer if such applications 
are made. 

The Massachusetts legislature, on March 14, 1800, approved 
an act whereby the Governor was " authorized to appoint a 
commission to provide and carry into execution all possible and 
reasonable measures to prevent the spreading, and secure the 
extermination of the Ocneria dispar or gypsy moth, in this 
Commonwealth." Three commissioners were appointed, and 
work was begun April 1st. 

In 1891, by an act approved April 17th, the entire work 
came under the control of the State Board of Agriculture. 
Spraying with Paris green was one of the methods adopted for 
the extermination of the insect. " When the caterpillars ap- 
peared, spraying was commenced with a large force of men and 
teams equipped with hogsheads of Paris green and water, 
pumps, hose, ladders, oil suits, etc. — an extensive and expen- 
sive outfit." 1 The remedy proved to be only partially success- 
ful, however, as it was expensive, and it met the opposition of 
property owners. The large size of many of the plants also 
prevented proper applications from being made, so that the 
treatments have since met with little favor. 

Michigan passed a compulsory spraying law early in 1895. 
It is entitled, " An Act to Prevent the Spreading of Bush, Vine, 
and Fruit Tree Pests, such as Canker Worms and Other Insects, 
and Fungous and Contagious Diseases, and to Provide for their 
Extirpation." 

The more important features of the law are here outlined : 
"Section 1. The people of the state of Michigan enact that 
it shall be the duty of every owner, possessor, or occupier of 
an orchard, nursery, or vineyard, or of land where fruit trees or 
vines are grown, within this state, to spray with a poisonous 
solution or disinfectant of sufficient strength to destroy such 
injurious insects or contagious diseases, all fruit trees or vines 
grown on such lands which may be infested with any injurious 
insects or worms, or infected with any contagious disease know^n 

^Special Report of the Mass. State Bd. of Agvie. Jan. 1892, 7. 



378 Appendix. 

to be injurious to fruit or fruit trees or vines : Provided, Tliat ' 
no such sjDraying shall be done while said fruit trees or vines 
are in blossom, except in case of canker-worms. 

"Section 2. In any township in this state where such inju- 
rious insects or contagious diseases are known to exist, or in 
which there is good reason to believe they exist, or danger may 
be justly appn^hended of their introduction, it shall be the duty 
of the township board, upon the petition of at least ten free- 
holders of such township, to appoint forthwith three eonii>etent 
freeliolders of said township, as commissioners, who shall hold 
office during the pleasure of the board, and such order of a]»- ! 

poiiitment and of revocation shall be entered at large upon the 4 

township record. Provoltd, That in townships having a board ♦ 

of yellows eoniniissioners, such commissioners shall be ex officio 1 

commissioners under this act." \ 

It is the duty of the commissioners to notify owners of jdan- 1 

tat ions of the presence of any injurious parasite, it being un- 
necessary that a complaint be first made by any one. 

" Section '>. Whenever any person shall refuse or neglect to 
comedy with the order to spray or disinfect the orchards or 
vineyard designated l)y tiie commissioners, as aforesaid, it 
shall become the duty of the commissioners to cause said trees 
or vines to be effectually spray«'d with a jtoisonous solution, or 
disinfected, as occasion should recpiire. forthwith, ('ni]tloyiiig 
all necessary aid for tiiat purjiost*. and the expenses for tiie 
same shall be a charge against the township; and for said 
spraying or disinfecting, the said conimissioners. thfir agents 
or w orkmen, shall have the right and power to enter upon any 
and all premises within their township. 

"Section G. If any owner, township officer, or commissioner, 
neglects or refuses to comply with the requirements of this law 
as set forth in the preceding sections, and within the time 
therein specified, such persons shall be deemed guilty of a mis- 
demeanor, and punished by fine not exceeding fifty dollars or 
imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding sixty days, or 
by both such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of the 
court; and any justice of the peace of the townshij) where 
such trees or vines may be growing shall have jurisdiction 
thereof." 

The act was ordered to take immediate effect. 



Appendix. 379 

Oregon has followed the example of California, for on Feb- 
ruary 25, 1889, the legislature approved " An Act to Create fi 
State Board of Horticulture and Appropriate Money Therefor.' 
It was amended February 21, 1891, and again in February, 1895, 
After dwelling upon the formation of a " Board of Horticul- 
ture," and other details of organization, etc., some of the power? 
of the board are stated as follows : 

" Section VI. For the purpose of preventing the introduction 
into the State, or spread of contagious diseases, insect pests, oi 
fungous growth among fruit or fruit trees, and for the preven- 
tion, treatment, cure, and extirpation of fruit pests, and disease? 
of fruit and fruit trees, and for the disinfection of grafts, cions 
orchard debris, fruit boxes and packages, and other material oi 
transportable articles dangerous to orchards, fruit or fruit trees 
said Board may make regulations for the quarantining, inspee 
tion, and disinfection thereof, which said regulations shall b( 
circulated by the Board in printed form among the fruit grow 
ers and fruit dealers of the State, shall be published at least foui 
successive times in some daily or weekly paper in each count} 
in the State, before the same shall be in force therein, and shal 
be posted in three conspicuous places in each county in th( 
State, one of which shall be at the County Court House 
Such regulations, when so promulgated, shall be held to im 
port notice of their contents to all persons within the State 
and sliall be binding upon all i)ersons therein. A wilful vio 
lation of any quarantine or other regulation of said Board 
necessary to prevent the introduction into the State, or th( 
shipment sale or distribution of any articles so infected as t( 
be dangerous to the fruit growing interest of the State, or th( 
spread of dangerous diseases among fruit trees or orchards 
shall be deemed a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof 
shall be punished by a fine of not less than five, nor more thai 
one hundred dollars, for each offense, or by fine and imprison 
ment for not less than five nor more than thirty days." 

When the Board becomes aware of the presence of injuriou 
insects or fungi upon certain premises, the owner is to be noti 

fied. 

" Such notice sliall contain directions for the application o 
some treatment approved by the Commissioners for the eradica 
tion or destruction of said pests, or the eggs or larvae thereof, o 



380 Appendix. 

the treatment of contagious diseases or fungous growths. Any 
and all such places, orchards, nurseries, trees, plants, shrubs, 
vegetables, vines, fruit, or articles thus infested are hereby 
declared to be a public nuisance. And whenever any suili 
nuisance shall exist at any place in the State, on the property of 
any owner or owners, ujvdi whom or upon the [lerson in charge 
or possession of whose i>roi»»'rty. notice lias be«'n served as afore- 
said, and who siiall have failed or refused to abate the same 
within the time specitied in such notice, or on the property of 
any non-resident or any properly not in the jiossession of any 
p< r>on and the owner or o\vn«'rs ot wliicli cannot be found by 
tlie resident member of the Hoard or tlie Secretary, after diligent 
searcli witliin the district, it shall J>e the dnty of the iioard, or 
the members tiiereof in whose «listrict said nuisance shall exist, 
or tlie Secretary under his or their direction, to cause such 
nuisance to be at once abated, by eradicating or destroying said 
insects or pests, or their pggs or larva*, or by treating or disin- 
fecting the infested or diseased articles. The expense thereof 
shall be a County charge, and the County cotirt shall allow and 
jiay the same out of the general fund of the County." 

I'rAii jtossesses a lau wliicli might be of considerable value, 
ii was approved March S. ISiil, and i> known as 

••An Act Anthori/ing tin* County Courts to Apjtoint I'liiit 
Tiei' ln>pect()rs and to l*ro\ide t'or tin' Dcstrnction of I'lnit 
1 >«'st loying Insects." 

Its directions are specific, and .so complete; that if the county 
probate judges perform their duty pro]>erly, the jilants should 
remain very fr»M' fioni parasites. 'I'lie following extract shows 
to what extent details are mentioned : 

'• Section 1. It shall be the duty of the county court of any 
county in the Territory of I'tah where fruit is grown, to a]»point 
one or more fruit tree inspectors for such county. 

" S(M\ "J. The duty of the fruit tree inspector of each county 
shall be to inspect every orchard, vineyard or nursery in such 
county at such time and under such regtdations as the county 
court shall prescribe. He shall annually re|»ort to the county 
court every item of interest and the result of his labors pertain- 
ing to the duties of his office. 

"Sec. ']. It shall be the dutv of the PiolKite Jud^e of anv 



Appendix. 38! 

county wherein fruit trees are growing, to annually issue hi 
proclamation, stating the time or times when it is prudent anc 
proper to spray fruit trees and to otherwise disinfect orchard 
that are infested with any kind of fruit-destroying insects, ii 
which he shall name two or more formulas that have been use( 
and approved for such purposes." 

And further : 

" Sec. 5. The county court is hereby authorized and requirec 
to provide for the pul)lication of the proclamation required b;; 
section 3, and to formulate such rides and regulations as it ma;' 
deem proper, to govern the actions of the fruit tree inspector ii 
his duties, and to give such public notice as it may deem prope: 
in relation to the disinfecting of storerooms, warehouses an( 
salesrooms where fruits in either a green or dried state may b( 
stored, handled or offered for sale." 

On March 8, 1895, a proclamation issued by the probat* 
judge of Sanpete County contained directions for sprayins 
apple, pear, peach, and plum trees, the time for making tin 
applications as well as the materials to be used being stated 

An inquiry was made to learn of the success attending tin 
enforcement of the terms of the proclamation, and of the gen 
eral effectiveness of the act as passed by the legislature. INIr 
Joseph Judd, the probate judge of Sanpete County, replied a 
follows : 

" In answer to your favor on the subject of our spraying laws, will say we hav 
the law on our statute book, and it was enforced in ISW. It has been carried on 
tlioroughly tliis year again, and we have found good results of the spraying. Ther 
is no doubt that spraying is absolutely necessary in these dry chmates, and I con 
sider it a very necessary law. But I have always doubted its constitutionality, a 
it hardly looks reasonable that the law can tell a person just how and when he shal 
spray or otherwise treat his orchard, and inflict a penalty if the law is not complie( 

with. 

" Some of our people have refused to comply in full, or as to when they shal 
spray, and we have just liad a ruling on the law by our chief justice Merritt. H 
declares the law unconstitutional, and from this time on I think that spraying Avil 
not be done so generally." 

With such a precedent, it appears doubtful if laws designee 
to control spraying will ever become popular. 



382 



Airpendix, 






B. IMETRIC SYSTEM. 

The meter is the primary unit of length. It is equal to 
Tooo'^oootli part of the distance measured on a meridian of 
the earth from the equator to the pole, and equals about 39.37 
inches. 





Mkasires of Length. 




Equivalents. 


Myiiameter 




10,000 


meters 


6.2137 miles 


Kilometer 




1,000 


(( 


i 0.62137 mile, or 
1 3280 ft. 10 in. 


Hectometer 




100 


(1 


328 ft. lin. 


Dekamt'ter 




10 


It 


393.7 in. 


Meter 




1 


meter 


39.37 in. 


Decimeter 




.1 


" 


3.937 in. 


Centimeter 




.01 


" 


.3937 in. 


Millimeter 




.001 


** 


.03937 in. 



Measures of Surface. 


Equivalents. 


Hectare 
Are 

Ccntai-o 


10,000 s(|. meters 
100 " " 
1 " meter 


2.471 acres 

119.6 t^(\. yards 

1550. s(|. inches. 



Measures of Capacitv. 


Eqlivalent.s. 




No. OF 
Liters. 


Cubic Measure. 


Dry Measure. 


Liquid or Wine 
Measure. 


Kiloliter, or Stere 

Hectoliter 

Dekaliter 

Liter 

Deciliter 

Centiliter 

Milliliter 


1000 

100 

10 

1 

.1 

.01 
.001 


1 cu. meter 
.1" 
10 cu. decimeters 
1 cu. decimeter 
.1" 
10 cu. centimeters 
.1 cu. centimeter 


1.808 cu. yards 

2 bu. 3.35 pks. 

9.08 quarts 
.909 quart 

6.1022 cu. inches 
.6102 cu. inch 
.061 " " 


264.17 gal. 
26.417 gal. 
2.6417 gal. 
1.0567 qts. 
.845 gill 
.33S tl. oz. 
.27 fl. dram 



Appendix. 



383 



System of Weights. 


Equivalents. 




No. OF Grams. 


Weight of Water 


Avoirdupois 






Maximum Density. 


Weight. 


Millier, or Tonneau 


1,000,000 


1 cu. meter 


2204.6 pounds 


Quintal 


100,000 


1 hectoliter 


220.46 


Myriagram 


10,000 


1 dekaliter 


22.046 " 


Kilogram, or Kilo 


1,000 


1 liter 


2.2046 " 


Hectogram 


100 


1 deciliter 


8.5274 oz. 


Dekagram 


10 


10 cu. centimeters 


.3527 " 


Gram 


1 


1 cu. centimeter 


15.432 grains 


Decigram 


.1 


.1 " 


1.5432 " 


Centigram 


.01 


10 cu. millimeters 


.1543 grain 


Milligram 


.001 


1 " millimeter 


.0154 " 



Common 
Measure. 


Equivalents. 


Common 

Measure. 


Equivalents. 


An inch 


2.54 centimeters 


A cu. yard 


.7646 cu. meter 


A foot 


.3048 meter 


A cord 


3.624 steres 


A yard 


.9144 " 


A liquid qt. 


.9465 liter 


A rod 


5.029 meters 


A gallon 


3.786 hters 


A mile 


1.6093 kilometers 


A dry qt. 


1.101 " 


A sq. inch 


6.452 sq. centimeters 


A peck 


8.811 " 


A " foot 


.0929 sq. meter 


A bushel 


35.24 " 


A " yard 


.8361 " 


An oz. avoirdupois 


28.35 grams 


A " rod 


25.29 sq. meters 


A pound " 


.4536 kilogram 


An acre 


.4047 hectare 


A ton 


.9072 tonneau 


A sq. mile 


259 hectares. 


A grain troy 


.0648 gram 


A cu. inch 


16.39 cu. centimeters 


An oz. " 


31.104 grams 


A " foot 


.02832 cu. meter 


A pound " 


.3732 kilogram 



INDEX. 



Acetate of copper, 137. 

Aceto-arsenite of copper, 121. 

Acme nozzle, 204. 

Aconite, 16. 

Acrobasis Vaccinii, 280. 

Actinonema Rosm, 858. 

Action of insecticides and fungicides, 
225-238. 

Adliesive power of fungicides, 47. 

JEgeria tipiiliformis, 286. 

Agitators, 211-213. 

Air-chambers, 210, 211. 

Air-slaked lime, chemistry of, 156. 

Albrand, knapsack pump, 187, 188. 

Alcohol, 9, 13, 115 ; amylic, 50. 

Aletia nrgillacea, 277. 

Aleyrodes, sp., 321. 

Alkali and oil wash, 161. 

Almond disease, 239; leaf blight, 239. 

Aloes, 12, 50; and soda, 172. 

Alum and calcium chloride, 44 ; pyreth- 
rum, 116. 

Alwood, W. B., quoted, 69, 70. 

American Ball Nozzle Co., mentioned, 
202. 

Ammonia, 116; and brass, 207, 20S. 

Ammoniacal copper carbonate, advan- 
tages of, 139 ; and arsenitos, 136, 140 ; 
and Paris green, 106; introduction of, 
into America, 101 ; preparation of, 13S ; 
recommended, 108. 

Ammoniated copper fungicides, 30 ; cop- 
per sulphate, 117 ; and ammonium 
carbonate, 160. 

Ammonium carbonate and ammoniated 
copper sulphate, 160 ; and copper car- 
bonate, 140, 141 ; coj)i)er sulphate, 151 ; 
cupric hydroxide, 140 ; sulphate, 44 ; 
and Bordeaux mixture, 48 ; and copper 
sulphate, 35. 



Amylic alcohol, 50. 

Analyses, miscellaneous, 117. 

Analysis of sprayed grapes, 232, 233. 

Anhydrous copper sulphate, 143. 

A7iiso2)ieri/x jiometaria, 249, 251. 

Anisota rubficunda, 812. 

Anthonomiis quadrigibbus, 255, 256. 

Anthracnose, bean, 261-263 ; carnation, 
271 ; currant, 285 ; eggplant, 290 ; 
grape, 294, see also grape anthracnose ; 
raspberry, 855 ; spinach, 363 ; water- 
melon, 261, 373. 

Antiopa butterfly, 873. 

Ants, destruction of, 57, 135. 

Aphis, 10, 308 ; apple, 247 ; black, peach, 
332; Bnissicce, 267; cabbage, 267; 
destruction of, 12; Cucumeris, 283; 
Mali, 247 ; Persicm-niger, 332; woollv, 
10. 

Apple aphis, 247 ; bitter rot, 240 ; black 
rot, 241 ; borers, 248 ; brown rot, 241 ; 
bud-moth, 248 ; canker-worm, 249, 251 ; 
case-worm, 251, 252 ; cigar-case-bearer, 
251, 252; codlin-moth, 252-255 ; colco- 
phora, 64 ; curculio, 255, 256; spraying 
for, 69 ; enemies and diseases, 240-260 ; 
foil web-worm, 256; leaf blight, first 
treated in America, 88; leaf-skeleton- 
izer, 257 ; maggot, 257 ; oyster-shell 
bark-louse, 258 ; powdery mildew, 241 ; 
railroad-worm. 257 ; ripe rot, 240 ; rust, 
242 ; scab, 243-247 ; scab, first treated 
in America, 88; scab, treatment of, 
101; sprayed with arsenites, 231 ; tent 
caterpillar, 258 ; value of spraying, 237 ; 
woolly ai)his, 259. 

Apricot, curculio, 260; enemies and dis- 
eases, 260; leaf rust, 260. 

A(iua ammonia, 116. 

Aquarius, pump, 190. 



2 C 



385 



386 



The Spraying of Plants. 



I 

! 



Arsenate of lead, 120 ; experiments with, 
77 ; preparation of, 77 ; soda, 120 ; soda, 
experiments with, 77. 

Arsenic, 117 ; compared ^vith arsenites, 
76 ; early use of, 56, 75 ; eflfect of, on 
vegetation, 120 ; trioxide, 117. 

Arsenicals and resin compounds, 136, 160. 

Arsenious acid, 117 ; anhydride, 117. 

Arseniteof, copper, 120 ; lime, 123 ; prep- \ 
aration of, 77, 119. 

Arsenites and ammoniacal copper car- 
bonate, 136, 140 ; glue, 147 ; kerosene 
emulsion, 155; lime, 76. 77, 105; plum 
curculio. 6S-74 ; soap, preparation of, 
170 ; comparison of, 76 ; danger of 
their use, 231 ; in England, 66 ; France, 
53 ; soil, 236. 

Artipiis Floridaiius, 321. 

Ashes, 6, S. 

Asparagus beetle, 260. 

A!*pi(U(>tus pern iciosui^, 323. 

Aster, leaf rust, 260. 

Atkinson, G. F., mentioned, 277 ; quoted, 
271-273. 

Audoynaud, quoted, 30. 

Australasia, spraying in, 57. 

Automatic cleaning nozzle, 200. 

Bacterial blight, potato, 349 ; disoaso of 

jiear, 334. 
Baiiev, L. II., mentioned, 199 ; (juoted, 

111", 236,251,355,363. 
Bailey nozzle, 200. 
Ball nozzle, 20'.'. 
Balm of Gilead, k-af rust, 261. 
Balsam of fir and kerosene emulsion, 156. 
Barley, affected by copper salts, 237 ; dis- 
eases, 261 ; rust, 319. 
Barnard nozzle, 203. 
Barnard, W. S., mentioned, 202, 203; 

suggested kerosene emulsion, S2. 
Baron, Le, <iuoted, 61, 62. 
Barrel machine, 191 ; pumps, 209-220. 
Barry, P., quoted, 13. 
Beach, S. A., quoted, 263. 
Bean, anthracnose, 261-263 ; enemies and 

diseases, 261-263; lima, blight, 264; 

new, nozzle, 199 ; pod rust, 261-263 ; 

rust, 263 ; weevil, 263. 
Beans, affected by copper salts, 235, 237. 
Bean-Chamberlin M"t"g Co., mentioned, 

192. 
Bean's cyclone nozzle, 204. 



Beaume, scale of, 116, 117. 

Beaune, treatment of, 24, 29. 

Bees, poisoning b}* si)rays, law regard- 
ing, 376. 

Beet, diseases, 264, 265 ; leaf spot, 264 ; 
root rot, 264 ; i-ust, 265 ; treatment, 
101 ; scab, 265. 

Belknap Co., mentioned, 199. 

Bellows, 204, 205 ; for atomizing llcpiids, 
186. 

Bencker, G., quoted. 44. 

Benzine, 125 ; emulsion (Italian), 145. 

Berrichone mixture, tested, 48. 

Bessey, C. E., quoted, 65-67. 

B. F. J., quoted, 98. 

Bidault, quoted, 24. 

Bird's-eye rot, grape, 294-296. 

Bisulpiiide of carlion, 52, 134; emulsion 
(Italian), 145; injector, 135. 

Bitter rot, apple, 240 ; grape, 305; gourd, 
5. 

Black aphis, peach, 832. 

Blackberry, 266 ; see also llaspberry ; 
anthracnose, 101. 

lilackiiead. cranberry', 280. 

Black knot, and kerosene, 1(M>; cherry, 
275: i)luiii, 340; treatment of. 111, 
112. 

Black-lined plant-bug, 287. 

Black rot. ai>ple. 241; grape, 297-300; 
early treatnu-nt of, s9 ; in France, 39; 
quince, 35;^; sweet potato, 368; spot, 
peach, 327 ; rose, 358. 

Blight, bacterial, of potato, 349 ; carna- 
tion, 273; celery, 274; early, of potato, 
345; fire, pear, 334 ; leaf, plum, 339; 
quince, 35:3 ; lima bean, 2M ; twig, 
peach, 328; potato, 347; powder, 174; 
privet, 352 ; quince, 334, 353 ; tomato, 
370. 

Blue stone, 142 ; vitriol, 142. 

Bones, burnt, 6. 

Borate of soda ; see Sodium borate. 

Borax, 125. 

Bordeaux mixture, agitation of, 132 ; and 
amount of lime recjuired, 128 ; air- 
slaked lime, 30 ; ammonium suli)hate, 
48; carbonic acid gas, 127; ferrocy- 
anide of potassium, 128, 129 ; glue, 
28, 44, 48 ; kerosene, 136 ; kerosene 
emulsion, 156 ; London purple, 105 ; 
molasses. 4:3, 131, 133; jxttassium fer- 
rocyanide, 46 ; resin washes, 136 ; as 



Index. 



387 



an insecticide, 109, 183 ; Cavazza's, 181 ; 
celeste, formula for, 42 ; celeste, tested, 
44, 48 ; chemistry of, 125-128 ; dried, 
144 ; early method of applying, 181 ; 
excess of lime, 41 ; first formula for, 
27, 28, 31, 34, 38; formula for, 104; in 
1888, 38; Australia, 57; England, 55; 
injury to gi-apes, 232, 233 ; injurious to 
sheep, 234 ; introduction into America, 
90, 92, 101; normal, 108, 130; origin 
of, 24 ; preparation of, 125-133 ; stan- 
dard, 108, 130 ; suggested for other 
plant diseases in America, 91 ; tested, 
48 ; with dissolved copper, 41, 42 ; 
nozzle, 199, 210. 

Borer, apple, 248 ; cane of raspberry, 
357 ; currant, 286 ; imported currant, 
286 ; peach, 332 ; pear, 248, 335 ; plum, 
248, 843. 

Boss nozzle, 199. 

Bouchard, A., treatment of, 35. 

Bouillie berrichonne, 37 ; bordelaise, see 
Bordeaux mixture ; bordelaise celeste 
a poudre unique, 48 ; bourguiguonnes, 
32 ; dauphinoise, 35. 

Bourguignonne mixture, tested, 48. 

Bowers, J. L., mentioned, 69. 

Brass, for pumps, 207, 208. 

Bridgeman, T., quoted, 18. , 

Brimstone, 6, 12. 

Broom for applying Bordeaux mixture, 
181 ; improved, 182. 

Brown rot, apple, 241 ; cherry, 274 ; 
grape, 300-802 ; peach, 328 ; plum, 
339. 

Brown turtle insect, 10. 

Bruelms obtectus, 263; Pisi, 326. 

Bucket pump, early use of, 190 ; pumps, 
208, 209. 

Budd, J. L., mentioned, 65, 66; quoted, 
68. 

Bud-moth, apple, 248; pear, 248, 335; 
plum, 248, 343. 

Buhach, 79 ; preparation, 163, 164. 

Burdock leaves, 13. 

Bush & Son & Meissner, quoted, 94. 

Cabbage, aphis, 267 ; bug, harlequin, 269 ; 
butterfly, 268; club-foot, 266; root, 
266 ; enemies and diseases, 206-270 ; 
finger-and-toe, 266 ; fly, 13 ; harlequin 
bug, 269 ; plusia, 267 ; root-maggot, 
268 ; treatment of, 135 ; worm, 268. 



<^a'om<i himinaUim, 356. 

Calcium cldoride and alum, 44. 

Cahfornia spider, 321. 

Caha nozzle, 202. 

Canada, spraying in, 112-114. 

Cane borer, raspberry, 357; rust, rasp- 
berry, 355. 

Canker, 4 ; worm, 8 ; and London purple, 
67 ; apple, 249, 251 ; cherry, 275 ; early 
treatment of, 63 ; elm, 291 ; experi- 
ments on, 79 ; Paris green, first use 
for, 62 ; plum, 249, 343. 

Cantharides, 4. 

Capol, de, quoted, 44. 

Carbohc acid, 18, 183 ; and glycerine, 
184 ; soap, 184 ; emulsion, 184 ; tested, 
57. 

Carbolized i)laster, 134. 

Carbon bisulphide, 52, 134 ; and kero- 
sene, 135; emulsion (Italian), 145. 

Carbonate of ammonia and copper car- 
bonate, 141 ; copper, 137 ; soda, 52. 

Carnation, authracnose, 271 ; Wight, 273 ; 
diseases, 271,272 ; rust, 272 ; spot, 273. 

Carpet-bug destroyer, analysis of, 118. 

Carjjocapsa pomoneUa, 252-255. 

Carrere powder, 41. 

Case-worm, apple, 251, 252. 

Cassids, 369. 

Catalpa, leaf spot, 273 ; treatment, 102. 

Caterpillar, of insects, 228. 

Caterpihars, destruction of, 51. 

Cauliflower, enemies and diseases, 278 ; 
see also Cabbage. 

Cavazza's Bordeaux mixture, 131. 

Cedar-apple, 242. 

Celery, blight, 274 ; caterpillar, 274, 324 ; 
enemies and diseases, 274 ; leaf blight, 
274 ; rust, 274 ; sun-scald, 274. 

Ceratoeystis Ji)nh)iafa, 368. 

Cercospora a nguhita, 2So; Apii, 274; 
beticola, 264; circunichsa, 239; Jie- 
sedce, Sli; rosceeola, 85S; Vioke, 812. 

Chafer, rose, 362. 

Chapin, (juoted, 62. 

Chapin's apple leaf sewer, 64, 

Charbon, grape, 297-300. 

Chemicals, early use of, 19. 

Cherry black knot. 111, 275; brown rot, 
274 ; canker-worm, 275 ; curculio, 275 ; 
enemies and diseases, 274, 275 ; leaf 
blight, 275; powdery mildew, 275; 
slug, 275. 



388 



The Spraying of Plants. 



Chester, F. D., mentioned, 128 ; on grape 

diseases, 107 ; pear diseases, 109, 110 ; 

quoted, 137, 140, 141. 
Chloride of calcium and alum, 44 ; copper, 

141 ; iron, 101, 151 ; mercury wash, 

160 ; sodium, 169. 
Chlorophyll, 229. 
Chrysalis, 228. 
Chrysanthemum, disease, 275, 276 ; leaf 

spot, 275 ; new leaf spot, 276. 
Ch ti/mbothrixfeinorata, 248. 
Cigar-case-bearer, apple, 251, 252 ; pear, 

251, 335. 
ChuloKporium carpo]>?iilitm , 327 ; de;i- 

driticum, experiments on, 22 ; ful- 

Tum, 370 ; sp. 820. 
Clay, 8, 9. 

Climax nozzle, 201 ; potato sprayer, 194. 
Cline, G. W., mentioned, 112. 
C/ixiociHiipa Americana, 77, 258. 
Clock jtumps, 217. 
Cloque, 47. 

Club-foot, cabbage, 266. 
Coal oil, 152 ; tar, 130. 
Cobbett, W., quoted, 10. 
Coccotorus Scutellaria, 344. 
Coccus, 7. 

CochyllH roserana, destruction of, 52. 
Codlin-moth and London purple, 63, 6S ; 

Paris green, 64; ai)ple, 252,255; first 

treated by exporimentatitm, 65 ; wth 

Paris green, 63 ; pear, 252, 335. 
Cold water, 179. 

Colecrphora Fleicherella, 251, 252. 
Coleoxporinm Sonchi-arreuKifi, 260. 
ColleiotrichuiH Sjiinaceie, 363. 
Colorado potato beetle, 851. 
Colsa oil, 52. 
Combination of arsenites and kerosene 

emulsion, 155. 
Combinations, 143 ; of insecticides and 

fungicides, 136 ; of insecticides and 

fungicides, suggested, 105. 
Combined cistern and force-i)ump, 191 ; 
Composition of Forsyth, 6. 
ConoiracheluH nemtjjhar, 275, 343. 
Cook, A. J., mentioned, 67, 68; on kero- 
sene emulsion, 81 ; quoted, 62, 68, 64, 

184, 233, 235, 251. 
Cook's hard soap emulsion, 154 : soft 

soap emulsion, 154. 
Copper, absorbed by foliage, 234, 285; 

acetate, 187 ; aceto arsenite, 121 ; action 



on foliage. 234; plants, 235; soil, 236; 
amount in soil, 236; carbonate, 187; 
ammoniacal solution, 138 ; and ammo- 
nium carbonate, 141 ; dextrine, 44 ; 
chemistry of, 137 ; early use upon 
grapes, 27 ; in ammonia, introduction 
into America, 101 ; precipitated, sug- 
gested, 36 ; recommended, 46 ; chlo- 
ride, 141 ; compounds and sugar, 173 ; 
h3'drate and ammonia, 86 ; sulphur, 
44 ; perforation of, 44 ; recommended, 
46 ; hydro carbonate, 44 ; in food, 235 ; 
mixture of Gironde, 125 ; nitrate, in 
soil, 237 ; phosphate, 44 ; early use 
upon grapes, 27 ; soda mixture, see 
copper carbonate, 141 ; sodium hypo- 
sulphite, 141 ; sulphate, action on 
foliage, 46; spores, 22, 235; ammo- 
niated, 117 ; and ammonium carbon- 
ate, 151 ; sulphate, 85 ; carbonate of 
soda, 36 ; lime mixture, 125 ; Paris 
green, 105; sodium carbonate, 44; 
sulphuric acid, 143 ; wheat smut, 318 ; 
anhydrous, 148 ; as a fungicide, 142 ; 
dissolved in ammonia, 80 ; early use 
of, 17, 22, 27; in Australia, 57; Eng- 
land, 55; soil, 237; on foliage, 34; 
prejjaration of, 142 ; salt and lime 
wash, 162 ; test for purity, 142 ; tested, 
41; value of, on posts, etc., 24; sul- 
jdiide, early use upon grapes, 27 ; 
sulphocyanide, 44 ; sulphosaccharate, 
42, 173." 

Copperas, 151, see also Iron sulphate. 

Co(iuillett, 1). AV., work of, 85, 87. 

Corn, aflfected by copper salts, 285, 237 ; 
enemies and diseases, 276, 277 ; insect 
enemies, 277 ; root- worm, southern, 
28:3 ; smut, 276. 

Cornell mixture, 143. 

Corrosive sublimate, 9 ; use of, 160. 

Cotton blight, 10; caterpillar, 277; ene- 
mies and diseases, 277, 278 ; leaf-worm, 
277 ; worm, 277, 2S6; Paris green for, 
61. 

Cottonwood, leaf-beetle, 278 ; rust, 278. 

Craig, quoted, 112, 114. 

Cranberry, blackhead, 280 ; enemies and 
diseases, 279-281 ; fire-worm, 280 ; 
fruit- v/orm, 280 ; gall fungus, 279 ; red 
rust, 279 ; rot, 279 ; scald, 279 ; vine- 
worm, 280 ; worm, 280. 

Craw, quoted, 149-151. 



Index. 



389 



Crawford, F. 8., quoted, 57. 

Creed, W., mentioned, 69. 

Ci'ioceris Asjxiragi, 260. 

Cruickshank, G., quoted, 80. 

Cuboni, C, quoted, 20, 157. 

Cucumber, enemies and diseases, 281- 
284 ; melon-louse, 283 ; worm, 283 ; 
mildew, 281, 314 ; powdery mildew, 
283; southern corn root-worm, 283; 
spotted beetle, 283 ; striped beetle, 284. 

Cupram, 138. 

Cupric-steatite, 174. 

Cupropliosphate, 44. 

Cuprosteatite, 44, 144. 

Curculio, apple, 255, 256 ; spraying for, 
69 ; on apricot, 260 ; cherry, 275 ; pear, 
255, 335 ; plum, 332, 343 ; spraying for, 
68-74 ; peach, 329. 

Currant, anthracnose, 285 ; borer, 286 ; 
bug, yellows-lined, 287 ; enemies and 
diseases, 285-290 ; green, leaf-hopper, 
289 ; imported borer, 286 ; leaf blight, 
285 ; spot, 285 ; rust, 285 ; sawfly, 286 ; 
worm, 13 ; imported, 286 ; introduction 
into America, 59. 

Cyanide of potassium, 149. 

Cyclone, Bean's, nozzle, 204 ; nozzle, 
202, 203. 

Cylindt'osporium Padi, 275, 339. 

Cysioiyus l2)ommce-paiiduran(e, 368. 

Dactylopms adonidum, 309. 
Dahha, insects affecting, 290. 
Ddkinma eonvoliiteUa, 293. 
Dalmatian insect powder, 163. 
Davenport's modification of sulphatine, 

57. 
David powder, 33, 144 ; in Australia, 57. 
Deane, S., quoted, 4, 6. 
Death to rose-bugs, analysis of, 118. 
Deming M'fg Co., mentioned, 195, 197. 
Dendrolene, 250. 
Depreto^a heracliana, 325. 
Devices, spraying, 207-224. 
Dextrine and copper carbonate, 44, 
Biabrotica, 12 ; _?9«?ic^a^((, 283 ; -vit- 

tata, 284. 
DifFuser, nozzle, 201. 
Dijjlosis pyrirora, 335. 
Diseases treated in America in 1887, 102 ; 

in 1888, 103 ; in 1889, 104-106 ; in 1890, 

106-108 ; in 1891, 108-110, in 1892, 110 ; 

in 1894, 111. 



Disulphide of carbon, 1.34. 
Doryi^lwra 10-lhieafa, 351. 
Dosch, H. E., quoted, 162. 
Douglas, W. & B., mentioned, 190. 
Downy mildew, grape, see also Grape, 

300-302 ; appearance in France, 19, 25 ; 

potato, 347. 
Dung, 4, 6, 10. 
Dust sprayer, Sirocco, 205. 

Early blight, potato, 345. 

Eau celeste, action on foliage, 46 ; chem- 
istry of, 145; in Australia, 57; modi- 
fied, 160 ; preparation of, 144 ; sug- 
gested, 30 ; tested, 35, 38, 41. 

Eau Grison, 16, 147, 307. 

]^]clair, knapsack pump, 187. 

Eddy-chamber nozzles, 203, 210 ; the 
spray of, 224. 

Eggplant, anthracnose, 290 ; leaf spot, 
290. 

Elder, 7, 11, 13. 

Elm, canker-worm, 291 ; flea-beetle, 292 ; 
gipsy moth, 291 ; insects att'ecting, 291, 
292; leaf-beetle, 292 ; span-worm, 291 ; 
trees, spraying with steam power, 
195. 

Emerald green, 121. 

Emphytus maculatus, 366. 

Erap>o(t albojjicta, 289. 

Emulsions, kerosene, and Bordeaux mix- 
ture, 156 ; milk, 153 ; pyrethrum, 156 ; 
soaps, 154, 155; linseed oil, 158; prep- 
aration of, 145. 

Engines, garden, 11 ; gas, 196 ; steam, 
195, 196. 

England, fungicides in, 55; insecticides 
in, 56 ; spraying in, 54. 

English purple poison, 74 ; composition, 
123 ; use of, 123. 

Ento7nospo?iuni maculatum, 333, 
353. 

Erysiphe Cichoracearum, 281, 872 ; 
Martii, 326. 

Evythroneura Vitis, 306. 

Eudiojjtis hyalinata, 283. 

Eureka nozzle, 199. 

Europe, spraying in, 53. 

European hellebore, 148. 

Exoascus, 47 ; deformans, 829; Pruni, 
342. 

Experiment stations, establishment of, 
102. 



390 



The Spraying of Plants. 



Fail-child, D. G., quoted, 234. 

Fall web-worm, apple, 256. 

Fantail nozzle, 199. 

Farmyard drainage, 12. 

Fernald, C. H., quoted, 77, 248. 

Ferrocyanide of potassium and Bordeaux 
mi.>:ture, 128, 129 ; chemical action of, 
146 ; recommended, 46 ; test for iron, 
151 ; use of, 129. 

Ferrous chloride, 151 ; sulphate, tested, 
57. 

Fessenden, T., quoted, 10, 11. 

Fichet's Insecticide, 50. 

Field Force Pump Co., mentioned, 191. 

Finger-and-toe, of cabbage, 266. 

Fir balsam and kerosene emulsion, 156. 

Fire blight, pear, 334. 

Fire, for strawberry leaf bhght, 365. 

Fire-worm, cranberry, 2!50. 

Fish-oil, S ; and soap, 171 ; soap, 146 ; 
use of, 166-169. 

Fla.v rubbish, 8. 

Flea-beetle, 345 ; elm, 292 ; grapevine, 
306 ; on potato, 351. 

Fletcher, J., mentioned, 114. 

Florida spray pump, 191. 

Flour, 146. 

Flowers of sulphur, uses of, 175. 

Foex, M. G., mentioned, 96. 

Foliage, copper absorbed by, 234. 

Foliage-eating insects, 309. 

Formulas and materials, 115-lSO. 

Forsyth, "\V., (juoted, 6, 7. 

Forsyth's composition, 6. 

Fostite ; see Sulphosteatite. 

Four-lined leaf bug, 2S7, 373; plant bug, 
287, 290. 

French applications of fungicides to 
grapes, 49 ; fungicides, introduction 
of, 93, 95, 99 ; green, 121 ; knajtsack 
pumps in America, 186. 

Frenching, 329. 

Fruit, keeping qualities of sprayed, 238 ; 
not poisoned by arsenites, 231 ; rot, of 
peach, 328 ; spot, pear, 333 ; spot, 
quince, 353 ; worm, cranberry, 2S0 ; 
gooseberry, 293. 

Fuma, 134. ' 

Fungi, classes of, 229 ; definition of, 228, 
229 ; methods of destroying, 230 ; treat- 
ment of, 230. 

Fungicides, action on soil, 235-237 ; and 
insecticides, action of, 225-238 ; com- 



parative test of, 48 ; early trials of, 19 ; 
first used in America, 87 ; French, in- 
troduction of, 93 ; test by Benoker, 44 ; 
of adhesive powers, 47 ; in America, 93, 
107, 108, 114 ; use in America, 92-114. 

Fungivore, 21. 

Fubiclddium dendriticum, 243-247 ; 
Pyrin urn, early treatment of, 47 ; ex- 
periments on, 22. 

Galliot's knapsack pump, 186. 

Galeruca scdtiiliot/iehena, 292. 

Gall fungus, cranberry, 279. 

Galloway, B. T., quoted, 107, 108; knap- 
sack pump, 188, 189. 

Garden engine, 11, 184, 185 ; earlv form 
of, 190. 

Garman. II., quoted, 241. 

Gas engines, 196 ; treatment, see Hydro- 
cyanic acid gas. 

Gases for grape mildew, 96. 

Gayon, U., quoted, 48. 

Gem nozzle, 199. 

Germany, sjiraying in, 54. 

Gillette, 0. P., and plum curculio, 71; 
quoted, 105, 106. 

Gipsy moth, on elm, 291. 

(.Jirard, A., quoted, 47. 

O'hvoNpo rill III fructigeninn, 240, 305; 
iiielongeiied. 290; //fc«/o/', 355; iier- 
riseqitiDii, 369 ; liibis, 285. 

Glover's scale, 322. 

Glucose, 174. 

Glue and arsenites, 147 ; and Bordeaux 
mixture, 48 ; value of, 147. 

Glycerine and carbolic acid, 134 ; Grison 
liquid, 97 ; phenic acid, 24. 

Goeze, J. A. E., quoted, 5. 

Goflf, E. S., mentioned, 65, 196; quoted, 
88. 

Golden bugs on sweet potato, 369. 

Gooseberry enemies and diseases, 292- 
294 ; fruit-worm, 293 ; mildew, treat- 
ment, 102, 292 ; sawtly, 13, 286. 

Gophers, treatment of, 135. 

Gordon, G., quoted, 57. 

Gouger, pliun, 344. 

Gourd, bitter, 5. 

Graduating spray nozzles, 198, 199. 

Grain, rusts, 319 ; treatment of, 106, 
135. 

Grape, anthracnose, 294; treatment, 23, 
37, 45, 295; bird's-eye rot, 294-296; 



Index, 



391 



bitter rot, 305; black rot, 297-300; 
early treatment of, S9 ; first controlled 
by Bordeaiix mixture, 40 ; fungicides 
for, 39, 41 ; in France, 39 ; brown rot, 
300-302; cbarbon, 297-300; cleaning, 
105; diseases, early treatment of, in 
America, 94, 95, 99, 100 ; treatment of, 
107 ; downy mildew, 300-302 ; early 
treatment with fungicides in America, 
93 ; introduction into Europe, 53 ; 
methods of treatment, 45 ; treatment 
with iron sulphate, 21 ; lime, 20, 27 ; 
sulphur, 21 ; enemies and diseases, 
294-306; flea-beetle, 306; gray rot, 
300-302; leaf-hopper, 306; powdery 
mildew, 303, 804; rattles, 304; ripe 
rot, 305 ; sawfly, 305 ; scab, 294 ; shell- 
ing, 304 ; slug, 305 ; steely-bug, 306 ; 
thrip, 306 ; vine flea-beetle, 306. 

Grapes, and Bordeaux mixture, 232, 233 ; 
injured by Bordeaux mixture, 232, 233 ; 
sprayed, analysis of, 232, 233 ; value of 
treatments, 237. 

Graptodera chalyhen, 306. 

Gravity machines, 194. 

Gray, F. M., mentioned, 186. 

Gray rot, grape, 300-302. 

Green, W. J., quoted, 73, 74. 

Green-fly, 308 ; leaf-hopper, currant, 289 ; 
-striped maple-worm, 312 ; vitriol, 151. 

Greenhouse, pests, 307-311 ; remedies 
used in, 307-311. 

Grison liquid, 16 ; preparation of, 147. 

Grub of insects, 228. 

Gunnis, W. E., quoted, 196. 

Guns, powder, 204, 205. 

Gyrnnosxjorangium macroinis, 242. 

Gypsine, 120. 

Haggerston, D., mentioned, 14. 
Halsted, B. D., mentioned, 106, 133; 

publications of, 100 ; quoted, 242, 264, 

267, 363. 
Ilaltica striolata, 351. 
Hamilton's recipe, 15. 
Handles, pump, 210. 
Hard soap and kerosene, 154. 
Harlequin cabbage-bug, 269. 
Harris, J., quoted, 13. 
Hartshorn, 116. 
Hatch bill, mentioned, 64. 
Hay lies, E. P., mentioned, 62. 
Heath broom, 181. 



Hellebore, 5, 13, 15, 18; analysis of, 118; 

properties of, 148 ; uses of, 148. 
Hemery compound, 15. 
Hemingway & Co., letter of, 65, 66. 
High, G. M., quoted, 93. 
Hilgard, E. W., quoted, 180. 
History, early, of liquid aiiplications, 

1-18; evolution of nozzles, 197-204; 

pumps and syringes, 181-197. 
Hollyhock-bug, 312 ; rust, 311. 
Horizontal-acting pumps, 214, 210. 
Horse-power sprayer, first form adver- 
tised, 193. 
Hot water, 178, see also "Water ; and smut 

of grains, 315-319. 
Howard, L. O., quoted, 69. 
Hoyt, S., quoted, 195, 196. 
Hubbard, H. G., on kerosene emulsion, 

82 ; quoted, 82, 83. 
Hubbard-Riley kerosene emulsion, 155. 
Hydrate of copper and sulphur, 44. 
Hydrocarbonate of copper, 36, 44. 
Hydrocyanic acid gas, amounts to use, 

149 ; preparation of, 148. 
Hypha3, 229. 

Hyphantria cunea, 256. 
Hyposulphite of soda, 172 ; first use of, 

88. 
Hyssop, 5. 

Imago of insects, 228. 

Imported cabbage butterfly, 268; cur- 
rant borer, 286 ; worm, 286 ; elm-leaf- 
beetle, 64. 

Injector for bisulphide of carbon, 135. 

Insect powder, 163. 

Insects, chewing, 228 ; foliage-eating, 
309 ; methods of destroying, 227, 228 ; 
sucking, 228 ; transformation of, 228. 

Insecticides, action upon soil, 235,236; 
and fungicides, action of, 225, 238 ; in 
England, 56; France, 50; patent, 162. 

Iron, chloride, 101 ; use of, 151 ; salts, 
early use upon grapes, 27 ; sulphate, 
45 ; action upon spores, 235 ; and grape 
anthracnose, 23 ; sulphuric acid, 169, 
170 ; as an insecticide, 90 ; early use 
of, 21, 22; properties of, 151; tests 
for, 151 ; uses of, 151. 

Italy, spraying in, 53. 

Jiiger, G. v., quoted, 119. 
Japy, knapsack pump, lb7, 188. 



392 



The Spraying of Plants. 



Jensen, J. L., hot water treatment of 
smut, 315-319 ; quoted, 315, 319. 

Johnson, S. W., mentioned, 110. 

Johnson's mixture, 140, 152. 

Johnston's engine, 1S3. 

Jones, L. K., mentioned, 133 ; on potato 
diseases, lOS. 

Joosten, C. II., mentioned, 174. 

Judd, Joseph, quoted, 3S1. 

Juniper web-worm, (M. 

Kainit, 1C3. 

Kattcrbach's knapsack pump, 186. 

Kedzie, K. C, mentioned, 233. 

Keeping qualities of sprayed fruit, 23S. 

Kellerman, "\V. A., mentioned, 100. 

Kenrick, W., quoted. 12. 

Kerosene, IS; and black knot, lofi; 
Bordeaux mixture, 130 ; carbon bisul- 
phide, 135; condensed milk, 15;3; milk 
emulsion, 82, 15:3 ; soap emulsion, SI, 
154 ; water, device for mixing, 190 ; 
applied in water, 79 ; early use of, 79. 

Kerosene eiiiulsiou and arsenites, 155; 
balsam of tir, 150 ; Bordeaux mixture, 
150 ; resin washes, 130 ; sulpliide of 
potash, ISO ; applied with gas engine, 
190; Ilubbard-liiioy f(U-mula, S4 ; in 
France, 51 ; introduction of, SO, 84 ; 
Italian, 145; in England, 00; proper- 
ties of, 152 ; Pyrethrum enmlsion, 150 ; 
when first emulsified, SO, Si. 

Kiigore, 1>. "\V., (juoted, 70, 119. 

Knapsack pump, Albrand, 1S7, ISS ; 
Eclair, 1S7 ; Gaiilot's, ISO; Galloway, 
ISS, 189 ; Japy, 1S7, ISs ; Kattcrbach's, 
ISO ; Vigouroux, 1S7, ISS ; with kero- 
sene attachment, 197 ; pumps, intro- 
duction into America, ISO; uses of, 
20S ; sprinkler, early forms, ISO ; Avith 
air-pump, ISS, 1S9. 

Koebele, A., work of, 85, 86. 

Ltestadia Bulicellii, 297-300. 

Lafitte, P. de, quoted, 23, 29. 

Lampblack, 12. 

Larva, of insects, 228. 

Laure, J., powder of, 21. 

Laws, si)raying. 375-381 ; Australia, 58 ; 
California, 375; Canada, 370; Oregon, 
379; Massachusetts, 377; Michigan, 
377 ; Tasmania, 58 ; Utah, 380. 

Laws, spraying, unconstitutional, 381. 



Lead arsenate, 120 ; see also Arsenate of 
lead. 

Leaf-beetle, cottonwood, 278 ; imported, 
elm, 292 ; blight, almond, 239 ; celery, 
274 ; cherry, 275 ; currant, 285 ; mign- 
onette, 314 ; pear, 333 ; plum, 339 ; 
quince, 35:3 ; rose, 358 ; strawberry, 
304 ; sycamore, 309 ; blister, pear, 330 ; 
bug, four-lined, 2s7 ; curl, peach, 329 ; 
hopper, grape, 306; green, currant, 
289 ; rose, 36^3 ; mite, orange, 321 ; 
mould, sweet potato, 308 ; notcher, 
orange, 321 ; roller, strawberry, 300 ; 
rust, apricot, 200 ; aster, 200 ; balm of 
Gilead, 201 ; cottonwood, 278 ; peach, 
331 ; skeletonizer, apple, 257 ; spot, 
beet, 204 ; catalpa, 273 ; chrysanthe- 
mum, 275; currant, 285; eggplant, 
290 ; maple, 312 ; orange, 821 ; quince, 
35:3 ; rose, 358 ; sweet potato, 308 ; 
worm, cotton, 277. 

Leather in pumps, 20S ; scraps, S. 

Lectf Ilium, 344 ; Ofew, treatment of, 150. 

Leek, 5. 

Leizour, quoted, 51. 

Lesne, A., quoted, 52. 

Lettuce-worm, green, 290. 

Lewis nozzle, 201. 

Lichens, 314. 

Lilly nozzle. 202. 

Liuui bean, 204. 

Lime. 0, 7, 8, 11 ; action on copper salts, 
in .soil, 237 ; foliage, 150, 2:34 ; spores, 
235 ; and arsenites, 70, 105 ; soaji wash, 
171; sulphur, chemistry of, 158; mix- 
ture, 147 ; powder, 176 ; chemistry of, 
156 ; first use of, for downy mildcAV of 
grape, 20; for plant-lice, 5; salt, sul- 
phur wash, 157 ; and cojiper suljjhate 
wash, 162; suli)hide, 10; preparation 
of, 158 ; uses of, 157 ; wash for curcu- 
lio, 16. 

Zitia scripta, 278. 

Lindley, Geo., quoted, 11. 

Linseed oil emulsion, 158. 

Lintner, J. A., quoted, 251. 

Liquid api)lications, early history of, 1. 

Li(iui(ls and powders compared, 205-207 ; 
ai)plicati()n of, 205-207. 

Litmus palter, use of, 40. 

Little Climax, 191 ; Giant pump, 191. 

Liver of sulphur; see Potassium sul- 
phide. 



Index. 



393 



Lodeman, E. G., mentioned, 133; on 
black-knot, 112. 

London purple, analyses, 124 ; and Bor- 
deaux mixture, 105 ; canker-worms, 
67 ; codlin-moth, 63, 68 ; introduction 
of, 65-67 ; report of first trials, 66 ; use 
of, 124. 

Long scale, 822. 

Loose smut, oats, 315-319 ; wheat, 815- 
819, 373. 

Loudon, J. C, quoted, 11, 14. 

Lowell nozzle, 199. 

Lye, 9, 11 ; and sulphur, 159 ; whale-oil 
soap, 159 ; uses of, 159. 

Lygus prate nsis, 366. 

Macdougal's syringe, 183. 

Machine for mixing kerosene and water, 

196, 197. 
Machinery, care of, 224; spraying, 207- 

224 ; early forms of, 185. 
Jfacrodactyhis subsjnnosus, 362. 
Macrosporium SoJani, 345 ; Tomato, 

370. 
Maggot, apple, 257 ; onion, 820. 
Manufacture of spray pumps increasing, 

191. 
Maple, enemies and diseases, 312, 813 ; 

green-striped maple-worm, 812 ; leaf 

spot, 312 ; tussock moths, 313. 
Margarodes quadrMigmaUs, 352. 
Marseilles nozzle, 204. 
Masson nozzle, 199. 
Materials for spraying, 115-180. 
Maynard, S. T., quoted, 111, 158. 
McGowen, J. J., automatic cleaning 

nozzle, 200, 201, 210 ; mentioned, 200 ; 

nozzle, 202. 
McMichael, J. K., quoted, 112. 
McMurtrie, A., quoted, 120. 
Mealy bug, 362 ; treatment of, 309 ; wing, 

orange, 321. 
Mearns, J., quoted, 12. 
Measures, metric system, 382, 383 
3felampsora Populina., 278. 
Melon-louse on cucumber, 288 ; worm, 

on cucumber, 283. 
Mercuric chloride, 160 ; wash, 160. 
Mercury, red oxide of, 52. 
Merritt, Justice, 381. 
Methods of destroying insects, 227, 228 ; 

spraying, 226. 
Metric system, 882, 388. 



Midge, pear, 385. 

Mignonette, disease, 814 ; leaf blight, 314 

Milco, G. N., mentioned, 79. 

Mildew, cucumber, 281, 314; downy 
grape, 300-302; potato, 347; goose 
berry, 292; onion, 319; pansy, 324 
pea, 326; peach, 10, 331; treatment 
of, 15, 331 ; powder}', cucumber, 288 
grape, 803, 304 ; muskmelon, 314 ; plum 
241, 348; pumpkin, 314, 852; squash 
314, 364 ; watermelon, 281, 873 ; rose 
17, 359 ; spinach, 368 ; strawberry, 365 
verbena, 281, 372 ; violet, 824, 872. 

Mildews, early treatment of, 12. 

Milk, condensed, and kerosene, 158. 

Millardet, A., quoted, 22, 27, 37, 48. 

Millardet's mLxture, 125. 

Mite, 809; orange, 321. 

Mitis gi-een, 121. 

Mixture No. 5, 160 ; introduction of, 
107. 

Modified eau celeste, 160 ; suggested, 37. 

Molasses and Bordeaux mixture, 43 ; 
chemistr}^ of, 173 ; uses of, 173. 

Mold, leaf, of sweet potato, 368 ; white, 
of sweet potato, 368. 

Monarch potato sprayer, 195. 

Moniliafruetigena, 274. 

Monroe, W. R., mentioned, 205. 

Morrill & Morley, mentioned, 192. 

Mortar, 8. 

Mosquitos, treatment of, 158. 

Mosses, 314. 

Moulton, F. C, mentioned, 77. 

Jlurgantia liistrionica, 269. 

Murray, J., quoted, 13. 

Muskmelon, powdery mildew, 814. 

Mycelium, 229. 

Myers nozzle, 204. 

Mytilaspis Glorerii, 322; jjomorum, 
258. 

Neal, quoted, 83. 

NeaFs mixture, 88. 

Xematus ventricosus, 286. 

New Bean nozzle, 199 ; leaf spot, chrys- 
anthemum, 276. 

Nicol's recipe, 14. 

Mcotiana Tabaeum, 176. 

Nitre, 14. 

Nitro-benzina, emulsion, 145. 

Nixon Nozzle and Machine Co., founded, 
191 ; mentioned, 191, 198, 201. 



394 



The Spraying of Plants, 



Non-poisonous potato-bug- destroyer, 
analysis of, 11 S. 

Normal Bordeaux mixture, 108, 130. 

Nova Scotia, spraying in, 113. 

Nozzle, Acme, 204 ; automatic cleaning, 
200 ; Bailey, 200 ; BaU, 202 ; Barnard, 
203 ; Bean's Cyclone, 204 ; Bordeaux, 
199, 210 ; Boss, 199 ; Calla, 202 ; Climax, 
201 ; Diffuser, 201 ; Eureka, 199 ; Fan- 
tail, 199 ; Gem, 199 ; Ideal, 222 ; Lewis, 
201; Lilly, 202; LoAvell, 199; Mar- 
seilles, 204 ; Masson, 199 ; McGowen, 
200, 202 ; Myers, 204 ; New Bean, 199 ; 
Peerless, 199; Riley, 203, 204; Ver- 
morel, 204 ; Avith lance, 204 ; Yigour- 
oux, 201 ; "Wellhouse, 200, 210. 

Nozzles, cj'clone, 202, 203 ; eddy chamber, 
202, 203, 210 ; graduating spray, 198, 
199 ; history of, 197-204 ; principles of 
construction, 198 ; sprays produced by, 
222, 224. 

Nursery stock, treatment of, 104, 111. 

Nux vomica, 15. 

Oat loose smut, 315-319 ; plants affected 
by copper salts, 237 ; rust, 319 ; smut 
and potassium sulphide, 318. 

Obera himaculata, 357. 

Ocneria dispar, 291. 

Oidium erysiphoides, 872 ; Tiickeri, 
53. 

Oil and alkali wash, 161 ; fish, use of, 16G- 
169 ; petroleum, 5 ; train, 7, 9 ; whale, 7. 

Oils, 5, 52, 161. 

Oleo-sulphide of carbon, 52. 

Oliver, P., quoted, 21. 

Onion, enemies and diseases, 319, 320 ; 
maggot, 320 ; mildew, 319 ; rust, 319 ; 
smut, 319. 

Oospora scabies, 265, 350. 

Orange, California spider, 321 ; enemies 
and diseases, 320-324; Glover's scale, 
322 ; leaf mite, 321 ; notcher, 321 ; scab, 
treatment, 97 ; spot, 321 ; long scale, 
322 ; mealy-A\ing, 321 ; mite, 321 ; 
oyster-shell scale, 322 ; red si)ider, 321 ; 
spotted mite, 321 ; rust-mite, 322 ; 
raspberry, 355 ; San Jose scale, 323 ; 
scab, 320 ; spider, 321 ; trees, treat- 
ment of, 150. 

Orchards, old, spraying of, 218-220 ; 
sprayed and stock, 233, 234. 

Oregon wash, 162. 



Otgyia, sp., 313. 

Oriental fertilizer and bug destroyer, 

analysis of, 118. 
Origin of Bordeaux mixture, 24. 
Orthotylus delicatus, 312. 
Osborn, H., and plum curculio, 70. 
Otto, R., quoted, 235. 
Oxalic acid, 50. 
Oyster-shell bark-louse, on apple, 258; 

'scale, 322. 

Pceeilocapsus lineatiis, 287. 

Paleacrita veryiata, 275. 

Pansj-, mildew, 324 ; rust, 324. 

Papilio Asierias, 324. 

Parafline, 56, 162. 

Parasitic fungi, 229, 230. 

Paris green, action on foliage, 122 ; soil, 
236; analysis of, 118; and ammoniacal 
copper carbonate, 106 ; copper sul- 
phate, 105 ; glue, 147 ; Hme, 122 ; as a 
fungicide, 98, 122 ; composition, 120 ; 
early methods of apphcation, 61 ; first 
use for canker-worm, 62 ; codlin-moth, 
62 ; for cotton-worm, 61 ; plum curcu- 
lio, 69-74; potato beetle, 60, 185; 
kerosene, and Bordeaux mixture, 136 ; 
law for spraying with, 376 ; manner of 
use, 123 ; patent pre])arations of, 60 ; 
properties, 120; upon fruit, 231. 

Paris purple, 74 ; composition, 125 ; use 
of, 125. 

Parkinson, John, quoted, 4. 

Parsley-Avorm, 324, 325. 

Parsnip, web-worm, 325. 

Pasturing stock in spraj-ed orchards, 233, 
234. 

Patent insecticides, 60, 61, 162. 

Patrigeon, G., quoted, 36, 45, 46. 

Pea-bug, 326; mildew, 325; rust, 326; 
weevil, .326. 

Peas, affected by copper salts, 235. 

Peach, black aphis, 832 ; spot, 327 ; borers, 
332 ; brown rot, 32S ; curl, treatment, 
47, 329 ; enemies and diseases, 827- 
332 ; Trenching, 829 ; fruit rot, 328 ; 
leaf curl, 329 ; rust, 881 ; mildew, treat- 
ment, 10, 15, 332 ; rosette, 332 ; twig 
blight, 328 ; yellows, 382. 

Pear blight, experiments on, 97 ; borers, 
248, 335; bud-moth, 248, 335; cigar- 
case-bearer, 251, 885 ; codlin-moth, 252, 
885; curculio, 255, 335; early treat- 



Index. 



395 



ment with ftiiifricidos, 47 ; onemios and 

diseases, 333-;3;39 ; tire bliglit, 384 ; fruit 

spot, 333 ; leaf bligiit, 333 ; blister, 336 ; 

midge, 335 ; psylla, 33T ; rust, 242, 335 ; 

scab, 243, 335 ; slug-, 33S. 
Pearl ashes, 11. 

Pearson, A. W., quoted, S9, 90. 
Peck, W. P., mentioned, 186. 
Peerless nozzle, 199. 
Pemj)elia irammondi, 257. 
Pepper, 5, 11, 12, 13. 
Peppier, T., mentioned, 194. 
Peronosjjora efiisa, 863; Sehleideni- 

a?m, 319; Viola, 324; viiicohi, 300- 

302 ; see also Downy mildew of grape. 
Peroxide of silicate, 118. 
Perret, M., quoted. 43, 145. 
Perret's mixture, 47. 
Persian insect powder, 163. 
Petit, A., quoted, 46. 
Petroleum, 5, 152. 
Phenic acid, 50, 188 ; and grape mildew, 

24. 
Phenol, 133. 
PhlegetJioiitius Carolina, 370; celeus, 

871. 
PJionuf uricola, 297-300. 
Phorbia Brassicce, 268 ; Ceparum, 320. 
Phosphate of copper, 44. 
P7ioa'opteris comptana, 866. 
Phragmidiuminucvoitatum, 361 ; rose, 

360 ; speciof<uni, 360. 
Pkyllostiota Acericola,Sl2; Bataticola, 

368; Catalpm, 273; hortorum, 290; 

Ugustri, 352; vittata, 351. 
Phylloxera, treatment of, 135. 
PhytopMliora i>ife-'<ians,S4'i ; Pkaseoli, 

264. 
Phyloptus Pyvi, 336. 
Picroina esfcelsa, 165. 
Pierce, N. B., quoted, 239. 
Pier is Rajne, 268. 
Pigeon dung, 16. 
Pine bug, 10. 
Pinolini, quoted, 21. 
Pistons, packing, 210. 
Plane tree, 839. 
Plant-bug, black-lined, 287 ; four-lined, 

287, 290 ; tarnished, on strawberry, 366. 
Plant-lice, 308 ; early remedies for, 5. 
PldNinidiopIiora Bransica', 266. 
Plaxmopara CdhenKia, 283, 314. 
Plaster, carbolized, 134. 



PJorrrigldia morhom, 275, 340. 

Plnm, black knot. 111, 340 ; bladders, 
342; borers, 248, 343 ; brown rot, 339; 
bud-moth, 248,343; canker-worm, 249, 
348; curcidio, 332, 843; experiments 
of Alwood, 69; Cook, 69, 70; Gillette, 
71 ; O shorn, 70 ; Weed, 70-73 ; spray- 
ing for, 68-74 ; treatment in New York, 
73 ; Ohio, 73 ; enemies and diseases, 
889-345 ; gouger, 344 ; knot, 340 ; leaf 
blight, 339 ; pockets, 342 ; powdery 
mildew, 241, 343; rot, 328, 343; scale, 
344 ; shot-hole fungus, 339 ; slug, 275, 
345 ; wart, 340. 

PluKia Brassiere, 267 ; cabliage, 267. 

Pneumatic pumps, description of, 192. 

Podechard's powder, 82 ; preparation of, 
163. 

Podospluera Ovycanthm, 241, 275, 331, 

Pod rust, bean, 261, 263. 

Pole, use of, 218. 

Pons, B., quoted, 42. 

Poplar, 845. 

Pot ashes, 11. 

Potash, 163 ; soap, 163. 

Potassium, 163 ; cyanide, 149. 

Potassium ferrocyanide, see Ferrocyanide 
of potassium ; sulphide and smut, 318 ; 
and whale-oil soap, 180; early use in 
America, 97; in England, 55; sug- 
gested, 24 ; use of, 163. 

Potato, affected by copi>er salts, 235; 
bacterial blight, 349 ; beetle, 290, 351 ; 
appearance of, 185 ; early spread of, 59, 
60 ; first destroyed by Paris green, 60 ; 
Wight, 347 ; bug, 351 ; downy mildew, 
347 ; early blight, 345 ; treatment with 
fungicides, 47 ; enemies and diseases, 
345-352; experiments on, in England, 
55 ; flea-beetle, 351 ; late Wight, 347 ; 
rot, 847 ; and Paris green, 98 ; Bor- 
deaux mixture first recommended for, 
29; treatment of, 100; scab, 350; 
sprayer. Climax, 194 ; Monarch, 195 ; 
spi'aj'crs, 221 ; sweet, see Sweet potato, 
368 ; water, 10. 

Potatoes, spraj-ing with force pumps, 
194 ; gravity machines, 194. 

Powder, David's, 33; guns, 204, 205; 
insect, 163 ; Podechard's, 82 ; Ska- 
winski's, 170. 

Powders and licjuids compared, 205-207 ; 
application of, 205-207 ; first used 



396 



The Spraying of Plants, 



against downy mildew of grape, 21 : 
used against grape mildews, 32. 

Powdery mildew, apple, 241 ; cherrj', 2T5 ; 
cucumber, 283 ; grape, 303, 304 ; musk- 
melon, 314; plum, 241, 343 ; pumpkin, 
314, 352 ; squash, 314, 364 ; watermelon, 
281, 378. 

Power sprayer, first form advertised, 
193 ; gas, 190 ; steam, 195, 196 ; spray- 
ers, 220, 221. 

Precipitated copper carbonate, 137. 

Preparations for spraying, 115-180. 

Prevost, Benedict, quoted, 22. 

Prillieux, E., quoted, 28, 40. 

Principles of nozzle construction, 198. 

Privet blight, 352 ; web-wonn, 352. 

Profits of spraying, 238. 

Psj'lla, pear, 337. 

Psylla Pyricola, 337. 

Puccinia 3[alvacearum, 311. 

Pucei-on lanigere, 50. 

Pump, air chambers of, 210, 211 ; an early 
form recommended in America, 184; 
barrel, method of mounting, 212 ; cyl- 
inders, 210; first form designed for 
spraying, 191 ; handles, 210 ; horizon- 
tal-acting, 214, 216 ; new type, 192 ; pis- 
tons, 210; valves, 20S. 

Pumps and syringes, history of, 181-197 ; 
barrel, 209-220; brass for, 207, 208; 
bucket. 208, 209 ; dock, 217 ; durabil- 
ity of, 217; knapsack, uses of, 208; 
semi-rotary, 215-217 ; types of, 213-220. 

Pumpkin, powdery mildew, 314, 352. 

Pupa of insects, 228. 

Pyrethro-kerosene emulsion, 156. 

Pyrethrum, 52 ; and alum, 116 ; intro- 
duction of, 78 ; preparation, 163, 164 ; 
uses of, 164, 165. 

Pyrolignic acid, 52. 

Quassia, 15, 17, IS, 165 ; and soap, 165, 
166. 

Quicklime, 11, 12 ; chemistry of, 156. 

Quince, black rot, 353 ; blight, 334, 353 ; 
enemies and diseases, 353-355; fruit 
spot, 353 ; insects affecting, 355, see 
also Apple ; leaf blight, 334, 353 ; spot, 
353 ; ripe rot, 240, 354; rust, 111, 35i. 

Radclyfte, W. F., quoted, 17. 
lladish, insects affecting, 355; see Cab- 
bage. 



Railroad-worm, of apple, 257. 

Rain, action of on fungicides, 47. 

Raspberry anthracnose, 101, 855; cane 
borer, 357 ; rust, 355 ; enemies and dis- 
eases, 355 358 ; orange rust, 355 ; red 
rust, 356 ; sawfiy, 357 ; slug, 357. 

Rattles, grape, 804. 

Raupenleim, 250. 

Read's syringe, 188. 

Red oxide of mercur}^, 52; rust, cran- 
berry, 279 ; raspberry, 356 ; spider, 10, 
821 ; treatment of, 310 ; spotted mite, 
on orange, 321. 

Resin and soda wash, 172 ; compounds 
and arsenicals, 136 ; first use of, 85-87 ; 
soap, preparation of, 166 ; washes and 
arsenicals, 169 ; Bordeaux mixture, 
136 ; kerosene emulsion, 136. 

Resin washes, preparation and use of, 
166-169. 

Rlu)pohata racciniana, 280. 

Rig for spraying, 218-220. 

Riley, C. V., in France, 51 ; mentioned, 
68; quoted, 59, 60, 61, 64, 85, 208; 
Hubbard kerosene emulsion, 155 ; noz- 
zle, 203, 294 ; on kerosene emulsion, 
81. 

Ripe rot, apple, 240 ; grape, 305 ; quince, 
240, 354. 

Robertson, John, quoted, 10. 

RdCKtelid ((uraniutca, 354; pirata, 
242. 

Root-maggot, cabbage, 268 ; treatment 
i>f, 135 ; rot, beet, 264 ; worm, south- 
ern corn, 283. 

Rose, black spot, 102, 358; bug, 362; 
chafer, 362 ; enemies and diseases, 858- 
363 ; leaf blight, 358 ; hopper, 863 ; 
spot, 358 ; mildew, 359 ; and copi)er 
suli)hate, 17 ; Phragmidium, 360 ; rust, 
102, 361. 

Rose, used for spraying, 198. 

Rosette, peach. 382. 

Rot, bitter, grai)e, 305; black, quince, 
358 ; sweet potato, 868 ; brown, grape, 
300-302 ; peach, 328 ; plum, 839 ; cran- 
berry, 279 ; fruit, peach, 328 ; gray, 
grape, 300-302 ; plum, 328, 343 ; potato, 
347 ; grape, 305 ; tomato, 370. 

Rubber in pumps, 208. 

Rue, 4, 5, 8. 

Ruinsey & Co., mentioned, 189, 190, 191, 
199. 



Index. 



397 



Rust, apple, 242; bean, 263; beet, 265; 

cane, of raspberry, 855 ; carnation, 272 ; 

celery, 274 ; currant, 2S5 ; hollyhock, 

311 ; mite, orange, 322 ; onion, 319 ; 

pansy, 324; pea, 326; pear, 242, 835; 

quince. 111, 854 ; red, cranberry, 279 ; 

raspberry, 356 ; rose, 361 ; strawberry, 

364 ; verbena, 2S1, 372 ; violet, 372. 
Rusts, of grains, 319. 

Sage, 5. 

Salicylic acid, 52. 

Salt, 9, 11 ; lime, and copper sulphate 
wash, 162 ; sulphur wash, 157 ; use of, 
169. 

Sand, 6. 

San Jose scale, 323. 

Saiyerda Candida, 248 ; cretata, 248. 

Sapi-ophitic fungi, 229. 

Saunders, W., mentioned, 88 ; quoted, 
249, 253. 

Sawfly, currant, 286 ; gooseberry, 286 ; 
grape, 305 ; i-aspberry, 857 ; straw- 
berry, 366 ; sweet potato, 368. 

Scab, apple, 243-247 ; beet, 265 ; grape, 
294; orange, 820; pear, 243, 335; po- 
tato, 350. 

Scald, cranberry, 279. 

Scale, Glover's, 822 ; insects, treatments 
of, 7, 84, 150 ; plum, 844 ; San Jose, 823. 

Scheele's green, 120. 

Schisocerus ebenus, 368 ; pri'vatus, 368. 

Schizoneiira lanigera, 259. 

Schnorff, 23, 37. 

Schweinfurth's green, 121. 

Scribner, F. Lamson, quoted, 91, 93, 242. 

Sea, sand, 8 ; shells, 8 ; water, 7 ; weed, S. 

Section of Veg. Path, foundation of, 92. 

Seeds, treatment of, 135. 

Selandria Cerasi, 275 ; BuM, 357 ; 
Viiis, 305. 

Semi-rotarj^ pumps, 215-217. 

SejJtoria cerasina, 339 ; Chrysan- 
themi, 275 ; Dianthi, 273 ; Petrose- 
lini, 274 ; liibis, 285. 

Sesia tipuliformis, 286. 

Shade trees, spraying, 195, 196, 363. 

Sheep, injured by sprayed grape foliage, 
234. 

Shelling, grape, 804. 

Shot-hole fungus, plum, 839. 

Shrubs, 863. 

Siebe's syringe, 183. 



Sirocco Dust Sprayer, 205. 

Skawinski, quoted, 45. 

Skawinski's iron sulphate and sulphuric 
acid, 169, 170; powder, 44, 170; sul- 
phur, 44. 

Slingerland, M. V., quoted, 248, 252, 288. 

Slug, 811 ; cherry, 275; grape, 305; pear, 
338; plum, 275, 345; raspberry, 357; 
strawberr}', 366. 

Slugs, 8, 11. 

Smith, G. M., mentioned, 68; John, 
quoted, 75 ; J. B., quoted, 250. 

Smoke, tobacco, 177. 

Smut, barley, 261 ; corn, 276 ; hot water 
and, 315-819; loose oats, 315-319; 
wheat, 815-819, 373 ; onion, 319 ; po- 
tassium snli>hide for, 818 ; stinking, of 
wheat, 315-819, 378 ; wheat, and cop- 
per sulphate, 818. 

Smuts, treatment of, 106. 

Snail, 311. 

Snuif, 177 ; and sulphur, 176 ; uses of, 
170. 

Soap, 5, 6, 7, 11 ; and arsenites, prepara- 
tion of, 170 ; carbolic acid, 134 ; kero- 
sene, emulsions of, 154; lime wash, 
171 ; quassia, 165, 166; soda wash, 171 ; 
tobacco, 171 ; black, 50, 52 ; fish-oil, 
146,171; potash, 163; resin, first use 
of, 85 ; preparation of, 166 ; standard 
remedj^, 18 ; use of, 170 ; whale-oil, 
uses of, 179. 

Soda and aloes, 172 ; resin wash, 172 ; 
soap wash, 171 ; whale-oil soap wash, 
172. 

Soda wash, 172. 

Sodium arsenate, 120 ; ex]ieriments with, 
77; borate and grape mildew, 28; car- 
bonate, 52 ; and copper suljiliatc, 36, 
44; chloride, 169; liypusulithite and 
copper suljihate, 141 ; first use of, 8S ; 
use of, 172 ; sulphide wash, prepara- 
tion of, 173. 

Soft soap and kerosene, 154. 

Soil, affected by copper i^alts, 236; in- 
secticides and fungicides, 235-237. 

Soot, 5, 7, 13. 

Sostegni, L., mentioned, 128. 

Soufres des Tajiets, 21. 

Sour milk and kerosene, 153. 

Southern corn root-worm, 283. 

Span-worm, elm, 291. 

Sphacelo))ia Ampelinurn, 294-296. 



398 



The Spraying of Plants, 



Sphcerella Fragaricp, 364. 

Sphceria, 275, f540 ; mot^bosa, 275, 340. 

Sphcpropnis malorum, 241, 353. 

Si>h(eroiheca CuMagnei, 365 ; Ifors- 
7cv(]B, 292 ; pannosa, 359. 

Spider, orange, 321 ; red, treatment of, 
310. 

Spinach, anthracnose, 363 ; mildew, 
368. 

Spores, use of, 229. 

Spot, black, of rose, 35S ; carnation, 273 ; 
leaf, of rose, 358. 

Spotted cucumber-beetle, 2S3. 

Spray, character of, 21S, 222-224; ma- 
chinerj-, care of, 224. 

Spra3ed fruit, keeping (|ualities of, 238. 

Sprayer, dust. Sirocco, 205; power, first 
form advertised, 193. 

Sprayers, potato, 221 ; power, 220, 221. 

Spraying, definition, 3 ; in America, 59- 
114 ; in 1886, 92-99 ; in 18S7, 99-102 ; 
in 1888, 102, 103; in 1SS9, 103-106 ; in 
1890, 100-lOS; in 1S91, lOS-110 ; since 
1892, 110-112; in Australia, 57; Canada, 
112; England, f>l; Europe, 53 ; France 
in 1885, 29; in 1886, 30; in 1SS7, 34; 
in 1888, 38 ; in 1889, 41 ; Germany, 54 ; 
Italy, 53 ; Nova Scotia, 113 ; laws, 58, 
376-381 ; machine, gas engine, 196 ; 
steam power, 196 ; machinerj^ 207-224 ; 
early forms, 185 ; method of, 226 ; old 
orchards, 218; profits of, 238; tank, 
218, 219 ; value of. 237, 238. 

Squash, insects affecting, 314, 364; pow- 
dery mildew, 314, 364. 

Standard Bordeaux mixture, 108, 130. 

Starr, K. W., quoted, 113. 

Steam spraying machine, 195, 196. 

Steely-bug, grape, 306. 

Stinking smut, wheat, 315-319, 373. 

Stock in sprayed orchards, 233, 234 ; so- 
lutions suggested, 34. 

Strawberry, leaf blight. 364 ; roller, 366 ; 
mildew, 365 ; rust, 364 ; sawtly, 366 ; 
slug, 366 ; sunburn, 364 ; tarnished 
plant-bug, 366. 

Striped cucumber-beetle, 284. 

Strychnine, 75. 

Sugar, and copper compounds, 173. 

Sulphate, of ammonia, 44 ; of copper, 142 ; 
see also Copper sulphate ; and wheat 
smut, 318 ; of iron, see Iron sulphate. 

Sulphated sulphur. 44, 174 ; verdet, 44. 



Sulfotine, 33 ; analysis of, 118 ; in Aus- 
tralia, 57 ; powder, preparation of, 
174. 

Sulphide of lime, 10; preparation of, 
158 ; potassium, 51, 180 ; and kerosene 
emulsion, 180 ; smuts, 318 ; in England, 
55 ; soda wash, preparation of, 173. 

Sulphocyanide of copper. 44. 

Sulphosaccharate of coiii)er, 42, 173. 

Sulphosteatite, 44 ; early use of, 33; in- 
troduction of, 174 ; tested, 3S, 41 ; value 
of, 49. 

Sulphur, 10, 11, 12, 13, 175; and copper 
hydrate, 44 ; cuprophosphate. 44 ; lime 
mixture, 147 ; powder. 176 ; lye, 159 ; 
snufT, 176; sulphosteatite, 49; whale- 
oil soap, 176 ; in America, 88 ; salt, and 
hme wa.sh, 157 ; sulphated, 44, 174 ; use 
of, in greenhouse, 307. 

Sulphuret of potassium, 163. 

Sulphuric acid, 45; and copper sulphate, 
143 ; iron suli»hate, 169, 179 ; as a 
fungicide, 22. 

Sunburn, strawberry, 364. 

Sun-scald, celery, 274. 

Sweet potato, black rot, 368 ; golden- 
bugs, 869 ; leaf-mold, 368 ; spot, 368 ; 
sawfiy, 368 ; tortoise-beetles, 369 ; 
white mold, 368. 

Swingle, \V. T., mentioned, 106. 

Switzer, S., quoted, 15. 

Sycamore leaf blight, 369. 

Si/iH'hyfrium Vaccinii, 279. 

Syringe, 7. 

Syringes, early forms of, 188 ; uses of, 
"l88, 208. 

Syringing, definition, 3, 

Tank fin- spraying, 218, 220. 

Tanks, agitators for, 211-213. 

Tanner's bark, 8. 

Tansy, 5. 

Taphrina, 47, 842. 

Tar, 186; water, 8, 11. 

Tarnished plant-bug, strawberry, 366. 

Tasmania, spraying in, 57, 58. 

Tavelure, 47. 

Tent caterpillars and arsenate of lead, 

77 ; on apple, 258 ; for gas treatments, 

150. 
Teifdnychus himaculaiiis, 309; 6-wa- 

enhitus, 321 ; telarlus, 810. 
Thachcr, J., (quoted, 7, 8, 9. 



Index. 



399 



Thick-tMghed walking-stick, 64. 

Thrip, grape, 006. 

Thrips, 10. 

Tilletiafoeteus, 315, 319, 3T3. 

Tmetocera ocellana, 248. 

Tobacco, S, 10, 11, 13, 18, 170 ; and soap, 
ITl ; for plant-lice, 5 ; liquor, analysis 
of, 118 ; stems, use of, 308 ; uses of, 
1T6-1T8 ; worm, 370. 

Tomato, blight, 370 ; rot, 370 ; first treat- 
ments of, 28, 29; treatment of, 100; 
worm, 37. 

Tortoise beetles, sweet potato, 369. 

Tozzetti, A. T., quoted, 145. 

Train-oil, 7. 

Trypeta poinonella, 257. 

Tschirch, A., quoted, 235. 

Tuck, quoted, 16. 

Turnip fly, 13 ; maggot, 268, 372. 

Turpentine, 5, 8, 11. 

Tussock-moths, 813. 

Twig blight, peach, 328 ; pear, 334. 

Typhlocyha rosea, 363. 

Uncinula spiralis, 303, 304. 

Urine, 4, 7, 16. 

Urocystis Cejndce, 319. 

Uromyees Betce, 265 ; Caryophyllinus, 

272 ; Phaseoli, 263. 
Usiilago Maydis, 276 ; Triiici, 315^19, 

373. 

Yalves, 208. 

Vanessa antiopa, 373. 

Verairum album, 148. 

Verbena mildew, 281, 372 ; mite, 309 ; 

rust, 281, 372. 
Verdet, 44, 137 ; sulphated, 44. 
Verdigris, 137. 
Vermorel, nozzle, 204 ; with lance, 204 ; 

v., mentioned, 203, 204. 
Vigouroux knapsack pump, 187, 188 ; 

nozzle, 201. 
Vinegar for canker, 4 ; cleaning grapes, 

105 ; insects, 11 ; in kerosene emul- 
sions, 153. 
Vine-worm, cranberry, 280. 
Vineyards, American, and fungi, 89; 

early treatment of, 89, 90 ; commercial 

treatment in America, 105. 
Violet, disease, 372 ; mildew, 324, 372 ; 

rust. 372 ; spot, 372. 
Vitriol, blue, 142 ; green, 151. 



Volatile alkali, 116. 
Volutella, sp., 271. 

Walnut leaves, 7, 11, 13. 

Warner's syringe, 183. 

Wash for insects, 6, 178; resin, first 

made, 85. 
Washes, clay, 178 ; resin, preparation 

and use oi 166-169. 
Water, 11, 178; cold, 179; hot, 11, 179; 

for smut, 815-318 ; sea, 7. 
Watering can, description, 182, 183. 
Watermelon anthracnose, 261, 373 ; pow- 
dery mildew, 281, 373. 
Webster, F. M., quoted, 251. 
Web-worm, fall, apple, 256; parsnip, 

825 ; privet, 352. 
Weed, C. M., and plum curcuho, 70 ; 

quoted, 105, 366. 
Weed, H. E., mentioned, 197. 
Weevil, bean, 263 ; pea, 326. 
Weigeha, insects affecting, 286, 373. 
Weights and measures, 382, 383. 
Wellhouse, nozzle, 200, 210 ; Walter, men- 
tioned, 200. 
Whale-oil, 7 ; soap and lye, 159 ; potas- 
sium sulphide, 180; soda wash, 172; 
sulphur, 176 ; first use of, 14 ; uses of, 
179. 
Wheat, loose smut, 315, 319, 873 ; rust, 
319 ; smut and copper sulphate, 818 ; 
stinking smut, 315-819, 373; arsenic, 
117. 
White arsenic, 117. see also Arsenic ; 
hellebore, 148, see also Hellebore; 
mold, sweet potato, 368; oxide of 
.arsenic, 117; scaly coccus, 10. 
Whitman's fountain pump, 184. 
Whitney, A. K., quoted, 67. 
Willard, S. D., quoted, 73. 
Wi'.low, antioi)a butterfly, 873; worm, 

278, 292, 873. 
Woodchucks, treatment of, 135^' 
Woodward, J. S., quoted, 68. 64. 
Woolly aphis, 10 ; destruction of, 50 ; 

on apple, -.'59. 
Worms, 11. 
Wormwood, 5, 7, 8. 

Yellow-lined currant-bug, 287. 
Yellow prussiate of potavSh, 146. 
Yellows, peach, 332. 
Young, Lawrence, quoted, 16. 



THE GARDEN-CRAFT SERIES. 

By L. H. BAILEY. 

[ ] NDER this title, Macmillan & Co. are issuing a series of 
handbooks upon horticultural practices. The books ex- 
pound the accepted methods of performing the various opera- 
tions of the garden, orchard, and glass-house, in simple and 
direct language. They are bound in flexible cloth, and are 
designed to be carried in the pocket, and to be used by 
busy men. Various subjects are now in preparation. The 
following has been already issued : — 

PLANT-BREEDING. 

BY 

L. H. BAILEY, 

Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell University; Editor of 
" The Rural Science Series," Etc. 

i2mo. 293 pages. Cloth. Price $1.00. 

CONTENTS. 

Lecture L The Fact and Philosophy of Variation. 

" II. The Philosophy of the Crossing of Plants. 

" III. Specific Means by which Garden Varieties originate. 

IV. Borrowed Opinions, of B. Verlot, E. A. Carriere, and W. O 
Focke, on Plant-Breeding. 

« V. Detailed Directions for the Crossing of Plants. 

Glossary. 



MACMILLAN & CO., 

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



The Horticulturist's Rule-Book. 

A COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL INFORMATION FOR FRUIT-GROWERS, 
TRUCK-GARDENERS, FLORISTS, AND OTHERS. 

By L. H. BAILEY, 

Professor of Horticulture in the Cornell Uni-ersiiy. 
Third Edition, Thoroughly Revised and Recast, with Many Additions. 



i2mo. 302 pages. Limp Cloth, 75 Cents. 



This volume is the only attempt ever made in this country to codify and con- 
dense all the scattered rules, practices, recipes, figures, and histories relating to 
horticultural practice, in its broadest sense. It is much condensed, so that its 
three hundred pages comprise several thousand fads, the greater part of which 
the busy man would never possess if he were obliged to search them out in the 
voluminous literature of recent years. All the approved methods of fighting 
insects and plant diseases used and discovered by all the experiment sta- 
tions are set forth in shape for instant reference. This feature alone is 
worth the making of the book. 

.Amongst the aclditioii> to the volume, in the present edition, are the follow- 
ing: A chapter upon " Greenhouse and Window-garden Work and Estimates," 
comprising full estimates and tables of lieating glass-houses, list of plants for 
forcing, for cut flowers, for window-gardens, aquaria, and the like, with tem- 
peratures at which many plants are grown, directions for making potting-earth 
and of caring for plants, etc.; a chapter on " Literature," giving classified lists 
of the leading current writings on American horticulture, with publisher's 
addresses and prices, and a list of periodicals, and directories of officers of 
whom the bulletins of the various experiment stations may be obtained ; lists 
of self-fertile and self-sterile fruits; a full account of the method of predicting 
frosts and of averting their injuries ; a discussion of the aims and methods of 
phenology, or the record of climate in the blooming and leafing of trees; the 
rules of nomenclature adopted by botanists and by various horticultural socie- 
ties ; score-cards and scales of points foi' judging various fruits, vegetables, and 
flowers; a f-dl statement of the metric system, and tables of foreign money. 



MACMILLAN & CO., 

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES. 

NOW READY. 

The Soil. By Franklin H, King, Professor of Agricultural Physics, 
University of Wisconsin. i6mo. Cloth. 75 cents. 

The Spraying of Plants. By Ernest G. Lodeman, Cornell University. 

IN PREPARATION. 

The Apple in North America. By L. H. Bailey, Editor of the Series. 

The Fertility of the Land. By I. P. Roberts, Cornell University. 

Milk and its Products. By H. H. Wing, Cornell University. 

Bush Fruits. By Fred W. Card, University of Nebraska. 

The Grass. By W. H. Brewer, Yale College. 

The Feeding of Animals. By W. PI. Jordan, Maine Experiment Station. 



I INDER the editorship of Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University, 
Macmillan & Co. purpose issuing a series of books upon agricult- 
ural subjects to be known as the Rural Science Series. These 
volumes are designed to treat rural subjects fundamentally, setting forth 
in readable form the latest and best science and opinion as applied to 
agriculture in its broadest sense. Whilst it is expected that the books 
shall describe the current practices of rural occupations, it is nevertheless 
their chief mission to expound the principles which underUe these 
practices, and thereby to lead, by true educational methods, to the better- 
ment of every rural pursuit. These monographs are to be written by 
men of recognized attainments, in various parts of the country; and it 
is expected that the series will be continued from year to year until it 
eventually covers the whole field. 



MACMILLAN & CO., 

66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 



vO' '/ C' \> . sO' •>' V '"/ C' 





x"^' ^ 


<^'^' 






7 


•/■- 


^ 


•f' 


^ ^ 




^C^ ' 




O 


I , 


-/- 


' * 


o 



'^if' ,&^' 



A" 



~^^ ' ^ fiif^«>«%».'''' "'?='. 



•r- 






. \- v^^ 









,^^' v.,# . 



V 



^% 






^0 > 







A^^' 




"^ ' * 8 


1 ^-^ 










\ < 


' ^' / 


^ 




0' 




.^" 






1, 










^/>. - 








aV 


■r>^_ 


/ 




■\: ■ 










a 


'■'':-> 


■ ^' V 


o. 










" « 


O- 


-0" « 


■^ 










-1 


•^ 


^ .* 


'' ^b 


0^ 


"■^A 


V^^ 










^ ^^ 


^'^.. 


^o°< 






x^ 


^*.. '* 






'">^'' 




N ■ 




" / ^ 


.^'- / 


% 


/■ 






■<^' 


* 




>> - 




'^/>. 
"^>. 






% 


-• 




^ 


" .A 


•I> 




. I ^ 




^ 




'■ '>^ ' 


./ 










■"-^^ 


,^*\v 




/ 


'o 


0^ 


c - 




■"^^ 


v^' 


: N^ ^r 


,v^' 


-"^^ 


:. 4, 








"^ ;^ 








c^ 








<o- 


''€> 






^_^ 






" o , * 


.^> .^' 


' O. '^r. 




" / 








,, '^r. 


A- 


-;'-• 


-». 






»~iN 








'x:. 
"'^V. 


.'O^' -■" 




% 




- 





^y>. 



> </>. "^ 



A 






o^-^ 

.^'' •^... 



.-.V -s-. 









-^^ 



o 0^ 





•^o 


0^ 






3 


^C^ 








-=«:. ^ 








<^r 1- 








^^ 








'^~. 


»rt 


V' ^ 




> 


^. 


r 






if' .\^ 


^ 






.^^ '^ 








>.xV 










-^ ■' y 


V 


■\ 






* ^ 


#\X 




^^ 


C^"' 





x^' </>. 



"^^> -s;^^ 



55, ' 



,^ 



s --/y 



■:!>. 



V^>, 






A 



^, v-^^ 






-0' > 



S^o, 



vV- 



a\' 



0' c 



N C 



c^ -;. 



.0 0. 



o^ -7*^ 



v-^ 



o^ 






c^, / 



I ^ 



0^-0 



>? <3^, 



